Quiz 2 Flashcards
Why is attention important?
Attention is a gateway to thinking
4 different types of attention
- Selective/focused
- Divided
- Orienting
- Preattentive
Selective/focused
Focuses on what is relevant and ignores what is not
Divided attention
Focus on multiple things at once
Orienting
An automatic shift in attention: unconscious, uncontrollable, immediate, powerful
Preattentive
When consciously focusing on one thing, other information is unconsciously processed
Impact of attention on sales
Attention converts to sales
- 1% increase in attention leads to 0.5% increase in sales
How does technology drain our attention?
Unlock, touch and check our phones an unbelievable amount of times per day
Times Square Demo
Looking at a video of Times Square and seeing how many ads you actually remembered after
Visual Search Task Paradigm (experiment)
For instance, a bunch of blue Ts and one red T. Stimulus that differed either on one feature or more
Visual Search Task Paradigm (experiment results)
Slower reaction time when identifying stimulus when there is:
1. multiple features
2. more number of items to search for
Visual Search Task - Controlled attention example
Finding a red L with red Ts and blue Ls
Visual Search Task - Controlled attention example
Finding the red letter, with a red L and blue Ls
Automatic processing is which type of system from the dual process model
System 1
Controlled processing is which type of system from the dual process model
System 2
- controlled
- slow
- effortful
Controlled attention is … of number of distractors
dependent
Automatic attention is … of number of distractors
independent
Characteristics of automatic attention
- automatic
- quick
- not controlled
Characteristics of controlled attention
- controlled
- slow
- effortful
Types of controlled attention
- Selective/focused
- Divided
Types of automatic attention
- Orienting
- Preattentive
Finding the red umbrella surrounded by black umbrellas (automatic or controlled)
Automatic
Find the word “and” in a set of text (automatic or controlled)
Controlled
How is selective attention tested?
Present two or more inputs and see how well people can concentrate on one and ignore the other
Question regarding selective attention
How good are people at concentrating on one stimulus and ignoring the second one?
How is divded attention tested?
Present 2 or more inputs and see how well people can concentrate on both
Distraction
One stimulus interfering with the processing of another stimulus
Attentional capture
A rapid shifting of attention usually caused by a stimulus such as a loud noise, bright light or sudden movement
Visual scanning
Movements of the eye from one location to another
X-ray experiment is what type of attention
Selective/focused
X ray experiment
Looking for cancer in an X-ray of a lung
Chabris eyewitness experiment is what type of attention
Selective/focused
Chabris Eyewitness Experiment
Participants were 9m away from runner, and had to count how many times he touched his head. 8m away confederate fight breaks off w loud noises.
Chabris Eyewitness Experiment - Results (1 and 2)
Big percentage missed the fight/failed to notice (even more w night)
Implications of Chabris Eyewitness Experiment
Intentional Blindness
Intentional blindness
Failure to notice fully-visible but unexpected object because attention was engaged elsewhere
Chabris Eyewitness Experiment - Results (3)
They noticed less when:
1. At night
2. 2 counts
3. 1 count
- Even with 0 counts some still missed it
Intentional blindness according to Eyewitness results (3)
Increasing the effort required by primary task, descreases noticing unexpected events
Considering the experiments of selective attention, how good is it?
- Powerful: when really focused you miss information
- Inattentional blindness: you miss other things depending how demanding primary task is
Dichotic listening task
Requires the participant to shadow the message in one ear while ignoring the message in the other
What type of attention does a dichotic listening task primarily test?
Selective attention
Colin Cherry study
Dichotic listening task
C1: Conversation
C2: List of words
- Shadowing conversation
Colin Cherry study (Results)
- Physical characteristics get through (ex. pitch, intensity, etc)
- Meaning does not get through
Colin Cherry study shows that attention is powerful BUT some…
Unattended information gets through
What research lead to the development of the Early Filter Model (Broadbent)?
Colin Cherry and other similar experiments
- Dichotic listening task + shadowing
Early filter model (Boradbent)
Argues that you can focus on one message only and information from the other one is not taken in
Stages of Early filter model of attention
- Sensory memory
- Filter
- Detector
- Output
Bottleneck model (Broadbent’s model):
- The filter restricts info flow like a bottle neck
- BUT it also keeps out a large portion of info
- Info gets through based on specific physical characteristics (ex. pitch)
Why is the Early filter model also called Early selection model?
Because filter eliminates unattended info at the beginning of the flow of information
Two stages of processing in the Early Filter Model
- Sensory registration
- Filter
The Early Filter Model explains Colin Cherry’s results because…
It indicates why the participant was able to recognize pitch and gender of the person speaking but not the meaning (it was filtered)
The Early Filter Model does not explain…
The Cocktail Party effect by Moray - why does our name not get filtered?
Moray’s cocktail party effect
We notice our name embedded in an ignored auditory channel
GSR experiment by Cherry
Stage 1 - Conditioning
C1: nouns (shadow)
C2: city names (shocked when city name)
Stage 2
C1: noun (shadow)
C2: city name
GSR experiment by Cherry (Results)
- No recognition of city words
- Physical reaction to city names (elevated GSR)
GSR Experiment by Cherry findings
Meaning of the word is processed in unattended channel but still no memory of the message
Evidence against Early Filtering Model (research)
- Moray (cocktail effect)
- Cherry (city names)
- Dear Jane experiment
Evidence against Early Filtering Model (ideas)
Some unconscious processing of unattended message
- Cocktail party effect
- GSR: bodily awareness of meaning
- Bilinguals notice unattended message in different language means the same as attended one
Attenuation model (Treisman)
Some information from unattended channel gets through, but it is degraded.
- What is more important (lower threshold) goes through
The attenuation model is a … of Broadbent’s model
Modification
Attenuation model stages
- Detection
- Attenuator (physical, language, meaning)
Attenuation model 2 stages
- Attenuator
- Message is analyzed by dictionary unit
What research does the attenuation model not explain?
MacKay study
- Ppts listen to ambiguous sentences in unattended.
- Later on presented with pairs of sentences linked to ambiguous scenes (identify which was closest in meaning to what they had previously heard)
MacKay study
- Ppts listen to ambiguous sentences in unattended.
- Later on presented with pairs of sentences linked to ambiguous scenes (identify which was closest in meaning to what they had previously heard)
MacKay study (Results)
The meaning of the biasing words affected the participants’ choices, even when the participants were unaware of the biasing words in the unattended channel
Which piece of research goes against both the Early and Attenuation model?
McKay experiment (ambiguous messages)
Late Filtering model
Meaning assigned to all stimuli, but only important stimuli reach consciousness
Stages of Late Filtering model
- Detection
- Recognition
- Filter
Why was the Late selection model proposed?
Because of experiments showing that messages can be selected at a later stage of processing - based on their meaning
- MacKay
Late Selection model: most of the information is processed to the level of … before being selected for extended analysis and inclusion in the decision making processes
meaning
Load Theory of attention (2 elements)
- Processing capacity
- Task load (primary task difficulty and distractor difficulty)
Load theory of Attention by Goldstein
The ability to ignore task-irrelevant stimuli is a function of not only the load of the task you are trying to do, but also how powerful the task-irrelevant stimulus is
Load theory of Attention by Goldstein (Implications)
a. Low-load tasks: few cognitive resources may leave resources available for processing unattended task-irrelevant stimuli, whereas;
b. High-load tasks: use all a person’s cognitive resources don’t leave any resources to process unattended task irrelevant stimuli
Foster and Lavie
- Load theory
Focus on a specific location or a particular stimulus, while simultaneously a distracting stimulus presented close to the attended location or field. - Degree of distraction is measured by comparing reaction times between 2 or 3 different conditions
Foster and Lavie (Results)
Found that there is an interaction between task difficulty and distractor. Specifically, participants were more distracted by distractor in the easy task compared to the hard task
Overt shift of attention
When a person redirects their focus to something by physically moving their eyes
Covert shift of attention
Shift in their focus mentally without making any visible movements
Attention is dissociable from…
vision
Posner Spatial Cueing Experiment
Arrows experiment
- Neutral trial (no arrow)
- Valid trial (arrow right way)
- Invalid trial (arrow wrong way)
Posner Spatial Cueing Experiment (Results)
- Neutral vs valid: benefits in reaction time
- Neutral vs. Invalid: costs in reaction time
What are the three attentional steps needed for Posner Spatial Cueing Experiment?
Disengage, move and engage
Attention metaphor
A spotlight
We pay attention to what we find…
- Interesting
- Important
- Funny
- Ambiguous
How to increase interest?
Increase visibility of brand: if brand is powerful, simply have to ensure visibility. This will increase attention due to interest.
How to increase intrigue?
Develop a plot line: create suspense and mystery. Build a story that unfolds over time. Will increase interest and motivation.
How to increase competition?
Develop a competition: generate participation and create competition. Gamify the process and will increase interest and motivation
How to increase humor?
Make them laugh: we inherently want to be in a good mood. When advertisements generate positivity and humor, we will pay attention
What are 4 components that help engage customers when promoting an ad or brand?
- Interest
- Competition
- Humor
- Intrigue
Treisman’s Feature-Integration Theory (2 processes)
- Feature search
- Conjunction search
Feature search
- Automatic
- Fast, pop-out
- Independent of number of distractors
Conjunction search
- Controlled
- Slow, effortful, needs “glue”
- Depends on number of distractors
Treisman’s Feature-Integration Theory (broken down into 3)
- Feature maps
- Automatic processing
- Master map and attention
Feature maps
Your brain first breaks down objects into basic features like color, shape, and motion using feature maps
Automatic processing
Recognizing the features and breaking them down happens automatically and in parallel
Master map and attention
Attention acts as “glue” that binds these features together, allowing you to recognize the object as a whole.
Treisman and Schmidt experiment of illusory conjunctions
4 objects and 2 black numbers showed briefly. Participants then told to report what they had seen.
Treisman and Schmidt experiment of illusory conjunctions (Results)
Participants reported seeing objects that were made up of a combination of features from two different stimuli
Illusory conjunctions
Combinations of features from different stimuli
According to Treisman, illusory conjunctions occur because…
in the pre-attentive stage, features exist independently from others. As such, they can be incorrectly combined if there is more than one object and they have limited time to see it.
Treisman and Schmidt experiment of illusory conjunctions: preattentive and focused stage
- Preattentive: features of objects are processed automatically and in parallel across the visual field
- Focus: attention plays a crucial role in “gluing” these features together to form a coherent perception of an object. Require focus attention
(Left) Hemispatial neglect
A neuropsychological deficit of attention
- Damage to right parietal lobe (typically)
- Impairments in attention to the left visual field (typically)
Left neglect
Difficulty disengaging attention from right side of space
Examples of neglect
- Visual search
- Spontaneous writing
- Reading
- Line-bisection task
Right Hemispatial Neglect
- Unawareness of the left side
- More severe and slower recovery
- Longer lasting
Left Hemisphere Neglect
- Affects attention to the right
- Less severe and faster recovery
- Shorter lasting
Left Hemispatial neglect - Hypothesis 1
Right parietal lobe manages spatial awareness on both sides, whereas left parietal specialized for language
Left Hemispatial neglect - Hypothesis 2
Related to sleep and suppressing regions involved in hemispatial neglect
Divided attention
The distribution of attention among 2+ tasks
How good is divided attention?
- When you divide attention, you have less resources for each task
- Is finite
Divided attention example
Cell phone use + driving
What influences divided attention?
Perceptual and/or cognitive load
Simultaneous-tasking
Performing two tasks at the same time
We can only simultaneous-task in
low load situations
Wais coffee shop/music experiment
Read description of a picture and try to recall how many items were present
1. silence
2. white noise
3. auditory distraction
Wais coffee shop/music experiment (Results)
Silence is the most efficient
Multitasking
Switching attention between tasks. You have to do this when the tasks are not automatic, or specifically in higher load situations
How does multitasking affect learning?
- Assignment takes longer
- Mental fatigues leads to more mistakes
- Remember encoding info less
- Harder to apply knowledge to other things
Inattentional blindness
Failure to notice fully-visible but unexpected object because attention was engaged elsewhere
Change blindness
Failure to notice something different about a visual display (involves 2 displays - pre and post change)
Controlled attention is triggered by
specific types of information
Limitations of controlled attention
- Too focused
- Too limited
Automatic attention
Baseline alertness
- Physiological
- Orienting
What triggers orienting attention
- Stimuli that are novel/unexpected
- Stimuli that are significant for the organism
Relevant emotions for orienting attention
- Surprise/startle
- Negative/positive emotions
Orienting attention definition
An automatic shift in attention: unconscious, uncontrollable, immediate, powerful
How does orienting attention work?
- Something makes you shift your attention
- You process new info and shift back
- Very brief process
Central vision
The area you are looking at
Peripheral vision
Everything off to the side
Preattentive processing
The continuous processing of the environment outside the focus of your attention (in the periphery)
Teisman’s feature-integration theory
The theory focuses on how we combine different features like color, shape, size, and orientation into a unified perception of an object.
Preattentive processing limitations
Limited informational capture
Is controlled attention endogenous or exogenous?
endogenous
Is automatic attention endogenous or exogenous?
Exogenous
Bottleneck theory
People have limited cognitive resources. Thus, information and stimuli are filtered or ‘selected’ for resulting in only a subset of information being processed at any one time
Biased competition theory
When one unattended object falls into a neuron’s receptive field it increases the neuronal firing. However, adding one or more unattended objects has the opposite effect, it reduces neuronal firing.
We have an attentional bias towards…
emotional stimuli
The imapact of emotion on attention depends on…
- type: arousal and valence
- time-course: early processing versus later processing
Cueing paradigm/dot probe task
Pairs of neutral-emotional stimuli presented first and are followed by a neutral target. Speed of target identification
Cueing paradigm/dot probe task (Results)
When emotional material is threatening and/or biologically relevant and delivered quickly there is a speeded processing for targets presented in this location
Attentional blink study
Participants see rapid picture stream with some target pictures. Participants typically missed targets that followed a previous target
Visual search paradigm
Pictures (distractors) + picture of deviant (snake).
Easier to find fear picture with distractors
Visual search paradigm
Faster detecting angry face in serious faces
Experiment about negative and positive images
- Attention is first captured by negative pictures only but then it remains captured by negative and positive
Two different types of effects of emotion on attention according to Barbara Fredrickson
- Positive: Broaden and build
- Negative: narrow and reduce
Positive emotion broaden (characteristics)
- Better memory for details
- See more possibilities
- More creative
- More trust
Negative emotion narrows characteristics
- Narrows attention
- Negative interpretations
- Favors habitual routines
- Leads to rumination
Emotional stroop paradigm
Slowing of reaction times to name the colors of negative emotional words in contrast to naming the color of neutral words
Debate: Nature of emotions
Categorical vs dimensional
Debate: What is emotion
Universal vs constructed
Universal view of emotions
There is a set of universal emotions. These emotions and their physical expressions are biologically innate and evolutionary adaptive. EKMAN
Basic emotions theory by Ekman
- Facial expressions are a window to emotions
- Expression of certain emotions is universal
Basic Emotions theory: Evidence in support
- Darwin
- Tomkins and McCarter
- Universality studies
Constructivist approach
Emotions do emerge from biological processes but they also emerge from information processing, social interaction, and cultural contexts.
