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Uni-year 1 & 2 > Qualitative and Quantitative methods > Flashcards

Qualitative and Quantitative methods Flashcards

1
Q

why use observational methods

A

questionnaires limited applicability

  • apparatus limits generalisability
  • context-dependent behaviour infeasible in controlled environments
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2
Q

steps of observational research

A 
observe informally
ask questions
choose measures
choose recording method
design experiment
run experiment
analyse
publish
ask more questions
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3
Q

choosing measures in observation

A

operational hypothesis or ostensive definitions

events or states

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4
Q

what is a ostensive definition

A

provide examples through pictures or diagrams along with descriptions of behaviour of interest

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5
Q

what is an ethogram

A
  • full list of behavioural repertoire
  • sometimes denotes quantitative description of time animal spends doing activity
  • refer to complete repertoires and coding schemes in specialised studies of subset of species’ or groups behaviour
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6
Q

types of measures in observation

A
  • latency
  • frequency
  • rate
  • duration
  • proportion
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7
Q

scales of measurement

A

nominal
ordinal
interval
ratio-interval

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8
Q

recording methods, sampling rules

A

ad libitum
focal sampling
scan sampling
behaviour sampling

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9
Q

what is ad libitum sampling

A
  • record what ever want, for as long as want
  • potential bias: miss rare events of short duration and underestimate contribution to smaller, less conspicuous subjects
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10
Q

what is focal sampling

A

specific individual isolated

potential bias: can be large if focal subject seeks privacy for specific behaviours

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11
Q

what is scan sampling

A

number of individuals observed

potential bias: rare events of short duration underestimated, while common events overestimated

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12
Q

what is behaviour sampling

A

all-occurrences sampling

potential bias: overestimation of conspicuous events

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13
Q

recording methods, recording rules

A

time sampling: instantaneous, one-zero

continuous recording

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14
Q

potential biases of recording rules

A

time sampling: underestimate rare behaviours of short duration

continuous: high fidelity records, fewer categories coded, underestimate long duration behaviours as more likely truncated by end of session

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15
Q

coding schemes

A

applied to observations to produce data

data isn’t standardised so can refer to videos or numerical data

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16
Q

coding schemes: principles measurement

A

perfect doesn’t exist
measurements more/less accurate
measurements more/less precise

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17
Q

what does accurate refer to (coding schemes)

A

correct and valid measurement

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18
Q

what does precise refer to (coding schemes)

A

exactitude: reliable and replicable

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19
Q

coding schemes: principle design

A

mutually exclusive
exhaustive
use category ‘other’ for behaviours not interested in

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20
Q

reliability; coding scheme

A
  • precision of coding scheme NOT precision of observer
  • sloppy observer show low reliability but ambiguous from reliability estimate
  • reliability only attributable to specific coding scheme applied by specific observer in specific spatiotemporal contexts
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21
Q

intra observer reliability

A

same observer codes same behavioural record at diff times

how consistent observer is

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22
Q

inter observer reliability

A

different observers independently code same behavioural record at same/different times
-how similar different observers code

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23
Q

consensus measures of inter observer reliability

A
  • assumption that two or more coders can come to exact agreement
  • percentage agreement: not correct for random choice
  • cohens kappa: proportion of agreement after correct fro random choice
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24
Q

consistency measures of inter observer reliability

A

assumption that it’s unnecessary for identical interpretation

  • correlation coefficient: doesn’t take into accoutn variance between coders
  • cronbachs a: corrects for variance, estimates reliability for two+ coders
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25
Q

equation for percentage agreement

A

A / A + D

A is agreed
D is disagreed

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26
Q

equation for cohen’s kappa

A

Pa - Pc / 1 - Pc
Pc = P(yes) + P(no)

Pa is proportion of observed agreement
Pc is expected agreement
must be 0.6+ to be good enough

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27
Q

advantage of self report

A

own opinions
gather large amount of data
economic
time effective

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28
Q

sources of bias in self report

A

social desirability
acquiescent response styles
careless responding

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29
Q

how can you avoid bias in self report

A
  • avoid presenting options as more desirable
  • use indirect items
  • confidentiality and anonymity
  • change between positive and negative items
  • reverse phrased items
  • antonymic expression
  • direct negation
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30
Q

what is a nomothetic or idiographic research question

A

nomothetic: relating to discovery of general laws, quantitative
idiographic: relating to study of particular facts or processes, qualitative

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31
Q

what are structured, semi-structured and unstructured interviews

A

structured: exact same for everyone, could be written
semi: set topics and some basic items for everyone
unstructured: general themes and issues that want to discuss

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32
Q

some principles for interviews

A 
funnelling
express ignorance and ask fro concrete examples
avoid double barrelled
no assumptions
no complex/jargon words
no double negatives
33
Q

why should you conduct a pilot interview

A

helps identify problems in wording

34
Q

what is a rapport and why is it need in interview

A

informal conversation to enhance disclosure
relaxed atmosphere of openness
giving space to allow unanticipated material to be brought up

35
Q

analysis issues of interview

A

transcription: words? meaning? non verbal communication? what happens with transcript?
coding: complete line by line, top down or bottom up

36
Q

what is top down and bottom up coding

A

top down: know what looking for

bottom up: no preconceptions, looking at concepts/categories/language

37
Q

why do interviews

A
  • function theoretical orientation
  • exploration of topic
  • give participants voice; own language, concepts, categories
  • higher in validity
  • subjective experiences
38
Q

problems with interviews

A

over reliant on self report
need observational and behavioural measures to verify what they say is true
unstandardised questions limit comparability
interviewer effects

39
Q

what are interviewer effects

A

impact of interviewer gender, ethnicity, appearance
actions of interviewer; response biases
inhibiting some answers but not others
inconsistent training

40
Q

Types of qualitative analysis

A 
thematic
IPA
grounded theory
discourse analysis
conversation analysis
41
Q

what is thematic analysis

A

approach which identifies themes in textual material

underpins many forms of quali analysis

42
Q

what is a theme

A

pattern of meaning

captures something important about material

43
Q

6 steps of thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke 2006)

A
  • familiarise self with material
  • initial coding: codes = basic units of meaning
  • searching for themes: play with grouping codes
  • review themes: use judgement, drop, split or merge themes
  • define and name themes; add narrative to explain what is interesting and why
44
Q

problem of thematic analysis

A
  • analyst sees five or six themes and looks for examples of it
  • no justification or explanation
  • no criteria
45
Q

advantage of thematic analyssi

A

can be used on any quali data-set

46
Q

what is IPA

A

form of qualitative analysis that makes number of psychological assumptions
analysis of subjective experiences of people’s lifeworlds

47
Q

IPA- assumptions about knowledge

A

people interpret world of phenomena; what we study is their interpretation of world
researchers interpret world too; interpret people’s interpretations, reflexivity is built into IPA

48
Q

designing IPA study

A 
always idiographic as looking at particular cases
always about meanings
it's quality over quantity
sample size; 6-8 standard
homogenous sample
49
Q

rule of transcribing

A

for verbatim interviews, one hour coding = 6 hour transcription
IPA alwasy begin with detailed reading and analysis of one case before move to next

50
Q

stages of IPA analysis

A
  • read through transcript
  • identify key words or phrases; make judgment abou twhat reflects speakers experience
  • identify themes; key words may be indicative
  • clustering of themes; superordinate themes, connections between them
  • integration of cases; use themes from first as hypotheses for rest
51
Q

validation of IPA

A

validity of analytic claims is matter of their plausibility

  • iterative reading; stick to data and return to it
  • ask self are these instances similar/different?
  • present illustrative quotes for each themes
52
Q

thematic vs IPA

A
  • TA for analysisng social media, IPA for interview
  • TA atheoretical, IPA psychological assumptions
  • IPA recommends specific sample size
  • IPA builds codes and themes from single case
53
Q

characteristics of thematic analysis

A

flexible
transparent (clearly explain decisions made at each step)
recursive

54
Q

types of comments in IPA coding

A

descriptive: describing content of what participant says, subject of talk
linguistic: exploring specific use of language by participant
conceptual: engaging at more interrogative and conceptual level

55
Q

ways to cluster themes (Smith 2009)

A

Abstraction: basic form of identifying patterns between emergent themes and developing ‘super-ordinate theme’

subsumption: the emergent theme itself becomes the superordinate
polarisation: opposing themes
contextualisation: consider wider context
numeration: taking account of frequency of theme
function: function in transcript

56
Q

what is discourse analysis

A
  • analysis of talk and text in their own right

- distinctive way of thinking about textual material; construction of reality

57
Q

stages of DA

A 
formulate research Q
gather material
read text 2-3 times
coding; select and organise data
analysis; what language constructs, what kind of people defines, functions of talking about things in that context, suggest other words or phrases that might have been used instead
58
Q

rhetorical devices in DA

A 
disclaimer
stake inoculation
extreme case formulation
category entitlement 
passive voice
three part list
identity claim
59
Q

what is a disclaimer

A

Explicit disavowal of very stance or opinion speaker advocates

60
Q

what is stake inoculation

A

Claim they have prior interest before they are challenged on it

61
Q

what is extreme case formulation

A

Semantically extreme word or phrase to defend or justify description/assessment

62
Q

what is category entitlement

A

Give special credence to certain categories of people that are entitled to make specific knowledge claims

63
Q

what is passive voice

A

Downplays responsibility of actor in relation to verb

64
Q

what is identity claims

A

persona along with the degree or range of power a particular person can claim in a specific discourse

65
Q

validity of DA

A

participant orientation: if speaker treats constructs differently then we can too
written presentation allows readers to judge

66
Q

reliability fo DA

A

if same material examined more than once, do get same answer?
rhetorical devices are specific and identifiable that can relate to for consistency

67
Q

advantages of DA

A

gives tools to study how people do things with words and how language constructs reality
study power
study any topic
wide variety of data types

68
Q

disadvantages of DA

A

doesn’t allow for usual generalisations

relativism: only comment on the language not what it represents

69
Q

what is a latent variable

A

can’t be observed directly

label given to collection of experiences or events or representations of things

70
Q

what is moderation

A

alludes to combined effect of two variables on outcome

a third variable influences the relationship between outcome and predictor

71
Q

what is mediation

A

when the relationship between a predictor variable and an outcome variable can be explained by their relationship to a third variable

72
Q

model of mediation

A 
total effect = indirect effect + direct effect
c' = ab + c
a = X influence on M
b = M influence on Y
c = X influence on Y
73
Q

when to use mediation

A

if you can use a linear model, you can use mediation
correlational : investigate process through which objective measures are related to outcomes (underlying psychological process)
experimental: investigate how experimental manipulation influences DV

74
Q

steps of mediation analysis

A

-simple regression of total effect of X on Y
-indirect effect: simple regression of X -> M and M-> Y controlling for X
-direct effect: multiple regression controlling for M
ALL UNSTANDARDISED B’S

75
Q

how to analyse mediation

A

bootstrapped confidence intervals of indirect effect

if 95 CI not include zero, then indirect effect is treated as significant

76
Q

statistical model of moderation

A

three predictors in linear model, X, W and XW

77
Q

grand mean centring

A
  • for deviations around fixed point
  • transform variable so it has mean of zero
  • subtract mean from each participant’s score, do for both predictor and moderator
78
Q

interpreting significant interactions

A

use simple slope analysis or johnson-neyman interval

simple: at what mean of the moderator is the direction of effect and if its sig

J-N: plots line when relationship is zero, anything above is positive and anything below is negative

Uni-year 1 & 2 (12 decks)

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