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Uni-year 1 & 2 > Psychology Of Childhood > Flashcards

Psychology Of Childhood Flashcards

1
Q

Temperament

A

Individual differences in emotion activity level and attention that’s re exhibited across context and present from infancy

Between person approach:
Easy child, difficult child, slow to warm child

Within person approach:
Fear child, distress/anger child, attention span, activity level, smiling/laughter child

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2
Q

Biological families

A

Not possible to disentangle effects of genetics and environmental factors

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3
Q

Genetically informative research

A

Twin design: monozygotic vs dizygotic twins, twins reared apart vs twins reared together

Adoption design: biological and adoptive parents, adoptive vs non adoptive families

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4
Q

Adoption design

A

Biological families have “genetic plus environmental” parents
Biological parents share genes but not environment with child
Adoptive parents share environment but not genes with child

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5
Q

Parent s and child resemblance

variation due to nature

variation due to nurture

A

If trait variation entirely due to nurture
-correlation strong for non adoptive and adoptive but not adopted apart children

If trait variation entirely due to nature
-correlation strong for non adoptive, adopted apart but not adoptive children

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6
Q

Adoption study limitations

A

Adoptees not randomly placed into families, get chosen
Adoption studies not generalise to population at large
Prenatal influences not considered eg biological mother smoking
Adoption (especially at birth) is unusual event

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7
Q

Twin design

A
  • comparing resemblance allows for rough estimate of separate genetic and environmental contributions to trait
  • assessed with correlation between pair of twins, separate correlations for MZ and DZ twins
  • MZ resemblance 100%
  • DZ resemblance 50%
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8
Q

Child temperament traits and significant genetic influence

A

Consistently found MZ more similar than DZ variety of temperament dimensions:

  • emotionality
  • shyness
  • sociability
  • attention/persistence
  • approach
  • adaptability
  • distress
  • positive affect and negative affect
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9
Q

Iimitation of twin design

A

Equal environments assumption; assume similar for fraternal and identical twins, MZ share more similar environments

Twin studies not generalise to population at large; twins more susceptible to prenatal trauma leading to mental retardation

MZ twins not 100% genetically identical; various biological mechanisms lead to genetic differences between MZ

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10
Q

Heritability

A
  • proportion of variance in population attributable to genetic differences between people
  • Estimate only applies to particular population living in particular environment at particular time
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11
Q

Twin study of child temperament

Lemerey chalfant 2013

A

301 MZ twins, 263 DZ same sex, 243 DZ opposite sex
parent telephone interview and home visits
Finding 1: effortful control, negative affect and extraversion show high heritability; 54%, 79%, 49%
Finding 2: home environments under genetic influence affect personality

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12
Q

pediatric approach

definition of temperament

A

general term referring to ‘how’ of behaviour…differs from ability … and motivation… concerns the way in which an individual behaves

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13
Q

pediatric approach

constituents of temperament
a.r.a-w.a.r.ir.mq.d.as

A 
activity level
regularity
approach-withdrawal
adaptability
threshold of responsiveness
intensity of reaction
quality of mood
distractibility
attention span
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14
Q

pediatric approach

typology of children

A

easy child: regular, positive mood etc
difficult child: irregular, high activity level
slow to warm: low activity level, low intensity of mood

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15
Q

personality tradition approach

definition of temperament

A

temperament is set of inherited personality traits that appear in early life
two defining characteristics: traits genetic in origin and appear in infancy

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16
Q

personality tradition

constituents

A

emotionality
activity
sociability

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17
Q

individual differences approach

temperament definition

A

constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, attentional reactivity and self regulation
temperamental characteristics seen to demonstrate consistency across situations and stability over time

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18
Q

individual differences approach

constituents

fd.id.as-p.a.p.r.a/a

A 
fearful distress/inhibition
irritable distress
attention span and persistence
activity level
positive affect/approach
rhythmicity 
agreeableness/adaptability
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19
Q

commonalities of the temperament approaches

A
  • temperament refers to individual differences not normative characteristics
  • refers to set of traits
  • reflect behavioural tendencies that are pervasive across situations and show stability
  • emphasis on biological underpinnings
  • emerges early in life
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20
Q

disagreements of the temperament approaches

A
  • differing boundaries for temperament
  • differing constituents (excluding activity level and emotionality)
  • relationship between temperament and personality construed differently
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21
Q

heritabiltiy of temperament

EAS traits

A
  • strongest evidence for EAS traits
  • MZ twins: 0.63 emotionality, 0.62 activity, 0.53 sociability
  • DZ twins: 0.12 emotionality, -0.13 activity, -0.03 sociability
  • as whole temperament is moderately influenced by genetic factors, estimate is similar across ages
  • stability in temperament is mediated by genetic factors , environmental factors account for age-to-age change
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22
Q

clinical application of temperament

A
  • temperament is a departure from the ‘tabula rasa’ concept
  • introduced the ‘goodness of fit’ concept
  • advocate of interactionist, idiographic approach
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23
Q

goodness/poorness of fit

A

-when child capacities, motivations and temperament are either adequate or inadequate to master the expectations, demands and opportunities of environment, if inadequate can lead to maladaptive functioning and distorted development

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24
Q

temperament and subsequent adjustment

A

prior 1992

  • relationships generally moderate strength; prediction from infancy is weak
  • difficult and active babies at increased risk for colic, sleep problems, excessive crying and abdominal pain
  • temperament difficulty associated with both internalising and externalising problems
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25
Q

experiment: linking temperament to internalising and externalising problems

A
  • ages 9, 11, 13, 15 from NZ
  • tester rating of temperament (lack control, approach, sluggishness) used to predict problem behaviour via parent/teacher reports
  • results: lack control is best predictor especially for externalising problems
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26
Q

temperament in context

A
  • not meaningful without reference to social context
  • ‘difficult’ temperament associated with poor outcome sin western cultures
  • ‘difficult’ babies had evolutionary advantage in Masai environment under harsh drought conditions
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27
Q

What is attachment

A

Strong emotional bond that forms in the second half of first year between infant and caregiver

Visible signs: warm welcoming, big smile, active effort to make contact, touching caregiver face, holding onto parent leg in unusual situation

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28
Q

Psychoanalytic theory of attachment

A

Baby become attached to mothers breast, then mother herself as source of oral gratification
Focus on innate drives and pleasure seeking
Emphasis on inner needs/feelings and mother-infant interaction

Love of object through association with oral need-gratification

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29
Q

Ethnological theory of attachment

A

Biological adaptation of infant-mother attachment
-nutrition, protection, secure base for exploration
Evolutionary advantage: proximity means safe and fed
Roots in set of instinctual infant responses, respond to each other’s behaviours

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30
Q

Learning theory of attachment

A

Infants become attached to mother as she provides food (primary reinforcement) thus she becomes a secondary reinforcer
Attachment develops

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31
Q

What is monotrophy in relation to attachment

A

“Bias of child to attach himself especially to one person” bowlby 1969
With fathers, siblings, peers

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32
Q

What are key characteristics of attachment

A

Emotional intensity
Proximity maintenance
Specificity of attachment figure
Distress upon separation

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33
Q

Development of attachment

A

Pre attachment

Attachment in making (6weeks-6months):

Scaffolding by care givers vs co regulation:

Clear cut attachment (6months -18months):

Reciprocal relationships (18-24months)

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34
Q

Measuring attachment

A

Quality or security of attachment varies
‘Strange situation’ Ainsworth 1973
Observe mother infant interaction in home from birth to 54weeks
Observations of attachment security lab

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35
Q

Classification of security

A

Insecure avoidant: happy to explore, usually not distressed by separation or on reunion
Secure: base exploration, distressed or not by separation, on reunion actively approach carer and distress decrease
Ambivalent-resistant : clingy, distressed by separation, reunion anger and resistance to comfort
Disorganised: display greatest insecurity, on reunion show confused behaviour or dazed facial expression

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36
Q

Antecedents to attachment

A

relationship construct but implicated mothers individual differences in attachment security
Accessibility and responsiveness of attachment figures are held to determine attachment security

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37
Q

How might temperament make a difference

A

Children’s temperamental characteristics DO play role in attachment security (Vaughn)
infants more distressed by removal of dummy were more likely to form insecure attachments (Bell, Weller, Waldrop)

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38
Q

Maternal sensitivity and temperament experiment

A
  • Intervention study of 100 irritable first born infants from low SES families and 50 controls
  • 50 infants experienced interventions of 3x2 hour home visits between 6-9 months
  • at 9 months intervention group mothers were more responsive, stimulating, visually attractive and controlling of infants behaviour
  • infant temperament also changed to be more sociable, self soothing and exploration
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39
Q

Consequences of attachment

A

Attachment quality tends to be stable over time

Secure attachment leads to higher self esteem, self confidence, social competence, positive affect

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40
Q

social smile

A
  • emerges between 6-12 weeks old
  • different stimuli elicit different types of smiles
  • audience effect: infants purposeful look towards mother, mothers attentive behaviour modulates infant smile, but child nto smile at toys
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41
Q

mother face recognition

A
  • little exposure required for newborn infants to develop preferences to their mothers face to that of strangers
  • 2-7 hour old infants observed for 72 hours, mother-stranger discrimination task carried out at 72 hours, preference fro mother increased the longer time spent looking at mothers face
42
Q

emotion discrimination

A

Haviland & Lewica 1987

  • mothers asked to display 3 emotions to 10 week old baby, happiness/sadness/anger
  • facial expressions rated similarly for expressiveness and animation, infants discriminated each expression
  • infants express and recognise expressions
43
Q

are infants sensitive to meaning

A
  • cause and effect relationships
  • separation anxiety
  • social referencing is test of infants sensitivity to meaning of emotional info
  • adult express emotional stance towards object or event but not communicate directly with infant
  • classic paradigm: visual cliff, 75% infants cross when mother display joy or interest
44
Q

theories of emotion

A

discrete emotion theory
appraisal theory
constructionist theory

45
Q

childhood anxiety

A
  • most experience predictable pattern of fears throughout development
  • mean age of onset is 11 years
  • global prevalence of 3-17 year olds is 6%
  • 30% heritable
46
Q

anxiety in families

A

top down: children of parents with anxiety have increased risk of having anxiety disorders
-bottom up: parents of children with anxiety disorders have increased risk of havign disorder

47
Q

parenting contribution to childhood anxiety

A
  • learning experiences: vicarious learning and verbal info transfer
  • parenting style/behaviour: overcontrol/protection, lack of warmth
  • attachment and family functioning: co-parenting
48
Q

indirect learning pathways

A
  • direct experience
  • verbal info
  • vicarious learning
49
Q

verbal info

A
  • neg verbal info increases child anxious beliefs and behaviours, positive info has opposite effect
  • emotional context of parental discourse predicts children socio-emotional cognitions and functioning
  • fear relevent stimui: explicitly indicate threat, suggest threat by emphasis on vulnerability, promote/endorse avoidance, limit child opportunities
50
Q

vicarious learning

A
  • persistent fears develop following observations of others fearful responses
  • social referencing: child response to fear provoking stimuli influenced by observed adult behaviour
51
Q

maternal anxiety and stranger avoidance

murray derosnay 2008

A

mothers higher anxiety and less engaged and less encouraging at 10months led to increased in infant avoidance of stranger at 4 months

52
Q

percy: systematic review

parent verbal info and child fear/anxiety

A
  • 15 studies
  • verba communication investigated in vignettes, childs past, while child engaged in activity
  • features of communication: threat related, negativity, parental over control, positive, general
  • increase in self reported fear beliefs in response to parent negative threat statements
  • child of parents who elaborated threat related themes had higher anxiety symptoms
53
Q

children with anxiety disorders

A
  • anxious people had sig associations for: catastrophising, use of neg emotion words, positie feedback
  • some types of verbal parent communication are associated wit child anxiety but mixed findings
54
Q

pass 2017 and maternal anxiety and child school

A
  • maternal info about starting school is naturally occurring and info transfer may be salient in early childhood
  • children of mothers who expressed high negativity in descriptions of school were more likely to represent school in negative way
55
Q

parenting styles

A

overcontrol/overprotective/lack of autonomy granting:
-excessive anxiety about happen to child, excessive regulation/monitoring behaviour with indication its needed

negativity/lack warmth
- lack of affection/involvement/support and increased rejection and hostility, reduced sensitivity/responsiveness to child signals

challenging parenting
-encourage child in playful way to exhibit risky behaviour, or behaviour that push his/her own limits or those in environment

56
Q

parental overcontrol/over protection

A

give child message that world is dangerous and uncontrollable place
reduce likelihood of child developing sense of competence and mastery

57
Q

parental negativity/lack of warmth

A

lead to child believing environment is hostile and threatening, outcomes will be negative, sense of low self-worth and competence

58
Q

challenging parenting

A
  • rough and tumble, teasing, letting child lose a game
  • exposed to safe risk, enabling to be brave in unfamiliar situations, build confidence
  • fathers challenging parenting important for anxiety prevention
59
Q

mothers vs fathers

A
  • different evolutionary roles in child rearing
  • mothers specialise in internal care tasks
  • fathers specialise in preparing for external world throuhg physical play, overcoming challenge and encourage independence
60
Q

what influences peer relations/status

A
  • tempermental traits
  • familial influences eg attachment or parenting
  • socio-emotional understanding eg social world
61
Q

what are peers

A

playmates close in age

form of companionship, assitance and social opportunities

62
Q

emergence of peer interaction

A

6 months, recognise peer as social partner: vocalising, looking, gestures
12-24 months: turn taking games and build preference for certain peers
-24 months peers come to be seen as preferred partners for social play

63
Q

categorised play

parten 1932

A 
unoccupied behaviour
solitary play
onlooking behaviour
parallel play
associative play
cooperative play

as grow up spend more time in interactive and social categories (associative and cooperative)

64
Q

play based assessment

A 
phase 1: unstructured facilitation
phase 2: structured facilitation
phase 3: child-child interaction
phase 4: parent-child interaction
phase 5: motor play

observation of: cognition (attention span/limitation/category of play), communication (modalities/phonology/ oral motor), social-emotional (temperament/humour/interaction wiht peer and parent), sensorimotor (muscle tone/mobility in play)

65
Q

functions of play and peer interaction

A

cog development: problem solving, exploration, communication
imagination an demotional development: socia roles and scripts
social competence: perspective taking and empathy

66
Q

gender differences in play

A

Maccoby:

  • peer contexts mediator in establishing gender sterotyped norms
  • gender segregated play crucial in generating gender roles

rose & rudolph:

  • boys prefer larger groups and engage in team games
  • girsl more likely to desire closeness and dependency
  • girls friendships more intimate, BUT more likely co-ruminate neg thoughts an dfeelings
  • no gender differences in amount of conflict experiences
67
Q

friendship - normative development

A

-friends at basic level are preferred play mates
-goals of friendships (Parker and Gottman):
coordinated play ages 3-6, peer group acceptance ages 7-8 and self disclosure and intimacy from adolescence

68
Q

issues of research on friendship

A
  • complex and tricky to measure
  • having vs not having (quantity) is important of mutual and reciprocated friendships
  • quality has variability in childs evaluations and theres positives and negatives to each friendship
  • identity of friends eg similarity
69
Q

establishing peer status an dpopularity

A

perceptions of popularity are rarely the same as ‘truw’ popularity

  • true popularity is someone who engenders social preference from others
  • child normally nominate attractive or best athlete
  • popular children have both social preference and social impact
70
Q

peer status groups

A 
popular
rejected (aggressive or withdrawn)
controversial
neglected
average

-Banerjee found rejected children had more neg nominations but more social impact

71
Q

consequences of peer status

A
  • broad patterns of psychopathology and adjustment: internalising leads to depression and anxiety, externalising leads to conduct problems and aggressive behaviour
  • impact on academic achievement
72
Q

circle of friends

A
  • inclusive approach to support children through elisting help of whole class or peer approach
  • establish prerequisites: child, parent teacher interview
  • whoe class meeting: focus child isnt present, establish group rules and enlist empathy
  • initla meeting: introduce focus child, decide on strategies
  • weekly meetings: adult facilitation
  • evaluation is difficult as not suited to large scales
73
Q

social understanding

A
  • perspective taking: variance in childs abilities

- theory of mind: understanding beliefs can be false

74
Q

development of social understanding

A

emotional understanding: knowledge of others’ desires and motives, know situation may upset or promote happiness

  • self conscious awareness and knowledge of social rules: require understanding of social conventions/norms
  • aged 5 can undertsand they shouldnt have said something but struglle to identify intention/consequential emotional states
75
Q

advanced theory of mind game

A

-fauz pas task explores understanding of socio-contextual factors that surround social scenario
-understanding double buff requires understanding of beliefs and motives of others and their thinking
-second order beliefs ages 5-11
accepting different interpretations of same info
understanding sarcams, irony, double entendre humour

76
Q

theory theory of social cog development

A

mental states are abstract and invisible and have been inferred
children try to figure out hwo others minds work, amek sense to assume they are same as you to start with and then mae model more complex
-its academic centric

77
Q

simulation theory of social cog development

A
  • dont need theory of mind as have their own mind and can imagine themselves in different situations
  • get better at imagining others’ perspectives that differ from their own
  • seems to be outcome of development not an influence
78
Q

theory of mind mechanisms of social cog development

A
  • innate modules of ToM reasoning

- to say its innate defers the developmental explanation

79
Q

forms of knowledge

A

surface knowledge: children learn about interactive potential of social world as they do about physical world
complex info: require reasoning, from and caused by underlying mental states

80
Q

social cognitive neuroscience

mirror neurons

A
  • allow to directly understand meaning of actions and emotions of others by internally simulating them
  • activated when observing an act or carrying it out
  • fMRI show brain regions in socio-cog function
  • neurons enable interaction which develops thinking
81
Q

social info processing

A
  • encoding of cues, interpretation fo cues, clarification of goals, response access or construction, response decision, behvaioural enactment
  • this model implies cyclical reinforcement process
82
Q

social understanding and peer relations

CAputi 2012

A
  • 70 italien children ages 5-7
  • theory of mind tasks and made most/least liked nominations
  • teachers rated social skills and cooperative behaviour controlling fro receptive language skills
  • peer status influenced by behaviour but behvaiour itself influenced by way think
83
Q

social understanding and peer relations

banerjee, watling and caputi

A

-longitudinal data from 210 children
peer rejection inhibits social understanding (7-9 years old) and impaired social understanding predicts subsequent rejection (10-11 years)
-faux pas scores increase with age
-having toM could mean being more prosocial, no ToM means more aggressive

84
Q

bullies

sutton, smith swettenham 1999

A
  • bullies in comparison to other roles in the bully-victim dynamic
  • measures children mental state, reasoning and emotional understanding
  • bulies scored highest on social understanding
  • victim not have worst scores which infers theres more to becoming a victim than poor social understanding
85
Q

bullies social goas

smalley and banerjee 2014

A

social goals predicted bullying even after SIP biases and mental state reasoning have been takne into account
bullies motivated by social dominance
-maintained by actual or implied physical superiority in boys, and perceived socail status by girls
-social reasoning ability allow bullies to switch goals according to situation to limit neg consequences

86
Q

autism

A

top down explanation: deficits in innate modules, small differences in biological charcateristics might dictate future social interactions

  • bottom up: differences in identification with others, different developmental pathways due to differences in visual systems, inconsistencies in social experience
  • child has trouble making eye contact, mimicking sounds and facial expressions, interacting socially etc
87
Q

Vygotsky: socio-cultural perspective

A

-cog development takes placein social context
learning takes place with cultural tools eg objects, language, social structures
-knowledge in not symmetric: guided participation and scaffolding by more knowledge partners
-language guides thinking and acting

88
Q

social interaction drives development

A

childs cultural development appears twice: at social level (between people) and then individual level (inside child)

89
Q

natural collaboration

A
  • starts between people, mesh actions with others and sustain shared meaning
  • some cultures collaborate better than others
90
Q

zone of proximal development

A
  • circle for ‘what i can do alone’
  • larger circle surroundng it for ‘what i can do with support’
  • squre surrounding both is for ‘beyond my current reach’
  • supportive structuring (help) and gradual fading as child learns to do action themselves
91
Q

importance of reading comprehension

A
  • learn to decode and to comprehend

- poor comprehenders have bad wokring memory, inferences and language awareness

92
Q

whats language awareness

A

cog conrol to ‘refelct upon and manipulate structural features of language’

93
Q

language ambiguity in in jokes

A 
phonological
lexical
word compound
syntactic
metalinguistic
pragmatic
94
Q

joke city and riddles for improving comprehension

A
  • training to search for ‘clue’ words in ambiguous texts will improve comprehension
  • scaffolding through peer discussion: different interpretations embodied by different agents, reach shared understanding, positive emotional context
95
Q

Vygotsky and education

A

language as socia tool to support complex abstract thinking
partners wiht different levels of skill
-inter to intra-psychological
-educatinal relevance: understanding mechanisms of group work

96
Q

what happens in pre attachment

A
  • crying, smiling, elicit caregiver behaviour

- preference for social stimuli

97
Q

what happens in attachment in making

A
  • visual recognition across room
  • more social behaviour
  • more discrimination between career and strangers
98
Q

what happens during scaffolding of attachment

A

-importance of contingency

99
Q

what happens during clear cut attachment

A
  • specific figure is secure base for exploration

- separation distress and stranger anxiety

100
Q

what happens during reciprocated attachment

A
  • decline in separation distress

- ‘internal working model’ of self in relation to others

Uni-year 1 & 2 (12 decks)

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