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Uni-year 1 & 2 > Psychobiology > Flashcards

Psychobiology Flashcards

1
Q

Brains job

A

-takes in info from outside world, perform computations/processes it and produces effects/outputs/behaviours

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2
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A
  • Automatic:CNS -> motor neurone -> internal environment -> sensory neutron -> CNS
  • Somatic: CNS -> motor -> external env. -> sensory -> CNS
  • sensory neurones: input from skin, output to spinal cord
  • motor neurones: input from brain, output to muscles
  • parasympathetic system: rest or digest, conserve energy, slows HR
  • sympathetic system: fight or flight, rapid involuntary response to danger/stressful situations, raise HR
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3
Q

Brain regions/brain slicing

A 
Anterior: in front of
Posterior: behind
Superior: above
Inferior: below
Medial: towards midline
Lateral: towards side 
Coronal
Sagittal
Horizontal
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4
Q

Brain structures

A

Brain stem: midbrain, pons, medulla
Forebrain: central hemisphere, diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus)
Cerebellum
Spinal cord

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5
Q

Cerebellum

A

Layered organised structure

Involved in refining movements and thoughts

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6
Q

Diencephalon

A

Bilateral structure
Thalamus: information hub, relays info from widespread brain areas
Hypothalamus: regulates homeostatic processes, connects to pituitary gland

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7
Q

Cerebrum

sub cortical structures

A

Hippocampus
Basal ganglia
Amygdala
Olfactory bulb

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8
Q

Hippocampus

A

Inputs: mid brain, cortex, projection nuclei
Outputs: cortex, amygdala, thalamus, ventral striatum
Computations: associative learning, spatial memory

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9
Q

Basal ganglia

A

Inputs: cortex, hippocampus, substantia nigra
Outputs: thalamus, substantia nigra
Computations: coordinating movement and motivated behaviour

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10
Q

Amygdala

A

Inputs: cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, brainstem
Output: cortex, basal ganglia, hypothalamus, brain stem
Computations: emotional learning

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11
Q

Ventricles

A

Contain cerebrospinal fluid, produced from ependymal cells lining ventricles
Circulated around brain, meninges, blood vessels and small extracellular space around neurones
Clears brain of unwanted products

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12
Q

Blood supply in brain

A

Specialised blood supply that’s self regulated
Brains highly vascularised
Functional MRI measures increase in oxygenated blood flow

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13
Q

Brain cell types

A 
Neurones
Glia:
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia
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14
Q

Neurones

A

Information transmitting brain cell
Transmit and process info using electrical signals
Made up of dendrites, soma, myelin sheath, axon terminal
Different shapes indicate different functions

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15
Q

Glia

A

Astrocytes: wrap processes around neurones, supportive roles
Oligodendrocytes: wrap myelin sheath around axon to insulate
Microglia: resident immune cell, survey brain for infection and damage, destroy/eat damage or infection

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16
Q

Labelling cell types

A

-fill with dye by inserting an electrode and allowing dye to diffuse in
-label with antibodies which attach to proteins specific to cell
Genetically modify mice to express fluorescent protein that expresses specific proteins

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17
Q

Electricity and corpses

A

Galvanic process
Electricity applied to corpse face, muscles contorted
Electricity applied to corpse body result in hand being raised and clenched

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18
Q

Electricity

A

-flow of charged particles
-current only flows through material that conducts electricity
Ohms law:
-current = potential x conductance
-current = potential / resistance
-potential: voltage difference, stored electrical energy

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19
Q

Concentration gradient across axon membrane

A

Outside of membrane there is more positive ions eg Na+, Cl+, Ca+
Inside membrane is K+, and negatively charged proteins
Electrochemical gradient created and maintained by Na+/K+ ATPase, pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in

Membrane potential is set by electrochemical gradient and permeability of membrane to ions

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20
Q

resting potential

A

outside cell is more sodium and little potassium
inside cell is more potassium, little sodium
electrochemical gradient as there is more positive ions on outside of cell
ATPase pump manages resting potential, pumps out 3 sodium ions, and in 2 potassium ions

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21
Q

action potential is a …

A

wave of transient depolarisation that travels down axon

measured using voltmeter

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22
Q

key concepts about ion channels

A
  • holes in membrane
  • allow ions to pass into and out of cell
  • selective ions
  • opened by different stimuli
  • ions flow down electrochemical gradients
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23
Q

action potentials:

convey …
generated by …
occur when …

A
  • convey fast signals from one place to another
  • generated by changes in membrane permeability (opening and closing of voltage gated channels)
  • self regenerating
  • only occur if reach threshold
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24
Q

action potential events

A
  • threshold reached
  • depolarisation of membrane (sodium channels opened)
  • repolarisation of membrane (sodium channels close, potassium channels open)
  • hyperpolarisation as voltage-gated potassium channels still open
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25
Q

all or nothing principles

A

-for action potential to occur voltage inside membrane must reach that of threshold otherwise no actin potential

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26
Q

action potential propagation

A
  • same size all along
  • as move along, depolarises next section of membrane and opens up the next voltage gated sodium channels
  • if enough channels open, reach threshold potential and action potential propagates along
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27
Q

absolute refractory periods

A

all sodium channels inactivated

one-way transmission

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28
Q

relative refractory period

A

some sodium channels inactivated

only strong stimuli can re-open channels and generate action potential

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29
Q

saltatory conduction

A
  • only in myelinated axons
  • action potential jumps from node of ranvier to the next
  • depolarisation only occurs at node of ranvier
  • faster and more efficient than unmyelinated actions
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30
Q

synapse events

A
  • action potential arrives at pre synaptic cell, opens calcium voltage gated channels
  • influx of calcium causes vesicles containing neurotransmitters to fuse with membrane and release them into synaptic cleft
  • neurotransmitters bind to post synaptic ligand-gated channels
  • ligand gated channels open and sodium ions diffuse into post synaptic neurone
  • depolarisation creating new impulse
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31
Q

excitatory and inhibitory action potentials

A

excitatory: makes action potential more likely to happen by allowing positive charged ions to diffuse into post-synaptic neuron
inhibitory: makes action potentials less likely to happen by allowing negatively charged ions to diffuse into post-synaptic neuron

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32
Q

excitation in post-synaptic membrane

A
  • depolarisation of dendrites
  • glutamate binds to AMPA receptor causing it to open allowing sodium ions to diffuse through
  • generates excitatory post synaptic potential
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33
Q

summation

A
  • temporal summation: many action potentials from one neuron, increases the amount of neurotransmitter in synaptic cleft
  • spatial summation: many neurons active at same time, combine to reach threshold
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34
Q

post synaptic membrane inhibition

A
  • GABA is main inhibitory neurotransmitter in brain
  • opens chloride channels allowing negative charge into cell, hyperpolarising membrane making ti harder to reach threshold
  • generates inhibitory post-synaptic potential
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35
Q

anxiety: clinical aspects

A
  • feeling of fear or dread
  • psychiatric literature: term anxiety used in situations where there is ‘no reasonable’ external cause fro anxiety and fear
  • clinical anxiety refers to anxiety that’s ‘pathologically’ interfering with other activities and priorities
  • symptoms: fear (panic/phobia), worry (anxious misery, apprehensive expectations, obsessions)
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36
Q

drug treatments of anxiety

A
  • alcohol (self medicated)
  • barbiturates, mepobromate: low therapeutic index, induces tolerance and dependence
  • benzodiazepine: anxiolytic effect, induce dependence
  • selective seratonin reuptake inhibitors: first line pharmacological treatment, delayed onset of action
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37
Q

expectations of psychopharmacological treatments

A
  • disease centred: suggests drug restores normal function
  • symptom centred: suggests drug produces specific change in aspects of mood, motivation, cognition and makes condition less disabling
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38
Q

GABA synapse and benzodiazepine

A
  • GABA binds to receptor causing chloride ion pore to open, inhibiting action potential
  • GABA receptor: separate binding sites for alcohol, barbiturates and benzodiazepine
  • benzodiazepine enhances effect of GABA
  • benzodiazepine sensitive receptors are selectively expressed in specific brain areas such as hippocampus and amygdala (mouse brain)
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39
Q

GABA receptor subtypes

A
  • made up of 5 subunits, each coded for by different genes
  • variety in structure alters sensitivity to benzodiazepine
  • GABA a receptor is ionotrophic (ligand gated channel)
  • GABA b receptor is metobotrophic (g protein coupled receptor)
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40
Q

fear and amygdala

A

fear conditioning
-tone played creates small increase in blood pressure and brief startle response
-tone preceded by mild footshock, larger increase in blood pressure and freeze response
-tone elicits increase in blood pressure and freezing
-condition process greatly reduced in rats with damage to amygdala
PET imaging
-subjects given stroop test with fear related words
-fear related words produce greater activation of amygdala (suggest structure involved with processing linguistic coded threat stimuli)

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41
Q

fear circuit

A

-output from amygdala can modulate aspects of fear including processing fear stimuli, hormonal changes and autonomic symptoms

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42
Q

noradrenaline and fear circuits

A
  • peripheral stress hormone and central neurotransmitter
  • hindbrain contains noradrenergic cell bodies that project forwards to cortex and subcortical structures eg amygdala
  • selective chemogentic stimulation of cell bodies delays extinction of simple response in rats
  • effect blocked by propanolol, noradrenergic beta receptor antagonist
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43
Q

worry circuits

A
  • complex neural loops run between cortex, striatrum and thalamus
  • responsible for modulation of motor output and cognition
  • dorsolateral prefrontal cortex important in worry and anxiety
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44
Q

benzodiazepine and modulation

A
  • may modulate GABA-ergic inputs to amygdala

- may modulate GABA-ergic inputs in CSTC worry loop

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45
Q

overlap of anxiety and depression

A
  • many of the same symptoms present in anxiety and depression
  • overlap in drugs that are effective at treating anxiety and depression
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46
Q

non-benzodiazepine anxiolytics

A
  • selective seratonin reuptake inhibitors: enhance sertonergic inhibition in the amygdala
  • buspirane: serotonergic drug with different mechanism
  • modulators of voltage gated calcium channels: reduce excitatory glutamate transmission
  • noradrenergic antagonists: reduces inputs taht enhance vigilance in hippocampus and amygdala
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47
Q

recreational drugs

A

varied groups of compounds:

  • nicotine, alcohol, hallucinogens, cannabis, psychostimulants, opiates
  • widespread use in human cultures
  • use frequently associated with addiction, tolerance, dependence and withdrawal
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48
Q

addictive behaviour

A

definition: “loss of control over form of behaviour pleasurable to most” “excessive appetite”
- suggests separation of liking and wanting; basis of some psychological theories of addiction

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49
Q

drugs and their neurotransmitter receptors

A

nicotine -> subtype of acetylcholine receptor
alcohol -> modulates GABA receptors, opioid receptors
opiates -> opioid receptors
MDMA -> seratonin 2A receptors and seratonin transporter
cocaine -> dopamine receptor
amphetamine -> releases dopamine
barbiturates -> modulate GABA a receptor
cannabis -> cannabinoid CB1 receptor

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50
Q

recreationally used drugs are likely to …

A

interact with specific neurotransmission systems, often by mimicking a natural neurotransmitter

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51
Q

place preference task

A
  • one compartment associated with drug administration (morphine or control)
  • other compartment had no association
  • rat moves freely between
  • transgenic mouse without opioid receptors fail to learn task
  • normal mouse shows preference for morphine compartment
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52
Q

cocaine

A

obtained from leaves of coca shrub
blocks dopamine transporter
-increase levels at synapse
-local anaesthetic resemblances lidocaine

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53
Q

amphetamine

A
  • first synthesised in 1887
  • psychotrophic effects not discovered until 1920
  • clinical uses eg narcolepsy
  • used recreationally at higher doses
  • widely used as decongestant
  • enhances dopamine release, reduces reuptake
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54
Q

psychostimulants and dopamine receptor

A
  • dopamine is released into synaptic cleft, taken up by transporter, reincorporated into vesicles by vesicular monoamine transporter
  • cocaine and amphetamine block dopamine transporters preventing reuptake
  • amphetamine stimulates release of dopamine by displacing vesicles
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55
Q

cannabis: components, mechanisms and mimics

A

components:
-∆9-tetrahydrocannabidol (THC) (major psychoactive component)
-cannabidiol (diff pharmacological properties)
-canabigerol (precursor with own activity)
mechanisms:
-CB1 mostly CNS
-CB2 mosty peripheral
-TRPV1 capsacin acts here also
mimics:
endogenous neurotransmitters: anadamide, 2-arachidonoglycerol

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56
Q

synthetic cannabinoids

A
  • originated from work of huffman
  • ∆9-THC high affinity, low efficacy, partial agonsit
  • full agonist, max stimulation, high efficacy
  • partial agonist, smaller effect at larger doses, compete with full agonist and reduce effect-moderate efficacy
  • antagonist, negligible effect, by competition at receptor reduce effect of partial and full agonists
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57
Q

dopamine and reward

A
  • many abused drugs lead to activation of brain dopamine systems
  • natural rewards such as palatable food, may also lead to activation of same systems
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58
Q

cocaine craving and brain receptors

A
  • neutral or cocaine associated images rate their craving, craving significant when seeing cocaine associated images
  • blood flow to prefrontal cortex and medial temporal lobe increased
  • activation of ventral striatum and other structures of basal ganglia
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59
Q

mesolimbic dopamine system activation

A
  • activated by range of natural rewards even those with cognitive elements
  • imaging study and laughter activated motor areas and other cortical areas
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60
Q

treating drug addiction

A
  • substitute one drug for another thats less rewarding
  • block effects of drug with antagonist or partial agonist
  • naltrexone helpful is reducing heavy drinking
  • variety of behavioural strategies
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61
Q

psychoactive drugs

A

acts to alter mood, thought or behaviour, used to manage neuropsychological illness and/or is abused

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62
Q

Analysing visual scene

A
  • cornea and lens focus inverted image on retina
  • specialised cells in refine transducer physical energy of light into depolarisation of retinal ganglion cells resulting in action potentials in optic nerve
  • retinal circuitry is complex, rod and cones hyperpolarised by light and have resting potential closer to 0mV
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63
Q

Optic nerve projects to lateral geniculate nucleus

A
  • optic nerve fibres from nasal half of retina cross midline, projecting contralaterally but those from temporal half of retina project ipsilaterally and do not cross at optic chiasm
  • animals with laterally places eyes have minimal crossing over
  • damage to optic nerve on right side lead to loss vision of eye
  • damage to optic tract on right side lead loss peripheral vision
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64
Q

Dorsal and ventral stream

A

Dorsal stream goes to posterior parietal cortex
Ventral stream goes to inferior temporal cortex

Identifying an object and remembering where it came from

Projections from brainstem to cortex are important in maintaining attention and arousal-like processes

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65
Q

Moving the eyes

A

-making a saccade (rapid movement of eye between fixation points)
supplementary area is rostral to motor cortex (involved in planning of movement)
-frontal eye fields have role in voluntary control of gaze distribution

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66
Q

How a Saccade occurs

A

Critical structures : caudate nucleus, putamen, globes pallidus, substantia nigra

  • substantia nigra cells firing away until there’s a pause where cells in caudate and superior colliculus fire
  • the disinhibition of superior colliculus by pause of firing of cells within substantia nigra leads to saccade
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67
Q

Cortico striato thalamo cortical loops

A
  • Motor loop and oculomotor loop both have additional cortical output to brainstem motor control areas
  • three further loops connect cortical area involved in cognition and emotion with basal ganglia
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68
Q

Parts of motor loop

A

Cortical input: motor, premotor, somatosensory cortex
Striatum: putamen
Pallidum: lateral globes pallidus, internal segment
Thalamus: ventral lateral and ventral anterior nuclei

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69
Q

Parts of oculomotor loop

A

Cortical input: posterior parietal, prefrontal cortex
Striatum: caudate (body)
Pallidum: globes pallidus, internal segment, pars reticulata (sub nig)
Thalamus: mediodorsal and ventral anterior nuclei

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70
Q

Function of basal ganglia in relation to motor control

A

Initiation and termination of actions
Selection of actions
Relating actions to reward or reinforce value

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71
Q

Penfields ‘motor homunculus’

A

map of brain involved with motor processing- electrical stimulation of human motor cortex
Area lies at back of frontal cortex, adjacent to central sulcus
Some areas such as for hand movement are larger

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72
Q

Muscle contraction

A
  • acetylcholine released at muscle end plate, bonds to nicotine receptors opening sodium channels
  • muscle membrane depolarises close to end plate and depolarisation is transmitted along membrane
  • depolarisation and sodium influx releases stored calcium ions within muscle and directly triggers contraction of muscle fibre
73
Q

Motor unit

A

Consist of motor neurone and set of muscle fibres in which it innervates
Muscle contraction involves mix of recruitment and rate coding (increasing degree of contraction of motor unit by firing frequency of motor neurone)

74
Q

Effects of TMS during reaching task

A
  • low amplitude transcortical magnetic stimulation to motor cortical hand region during reach sequence, disrupts neuronal firing
  • muscle involved in grasp become more sensitive in late stages
75
Q

Processing taste

A

-taste buds in tongue contain cells with receptors for salt, sour, sweet, bitter, Unami
-project to hindbrain thalamus
-then project to cortical areas including insula
-brain contains ‘reward’ system that brings you back for more
-taste, texture, smell contribute to rewarding properties and stimulate reward system
Key structures:
-central tegmentum, nucleus accumbens

76
Q

hypothalamo-pituitary axis

A
  • pituitary gland embedded into bone in mouth and hangs from stork just eblow brain
  • anterior in outgrowth of primitive gut, releases hormones into its own blood supply
  • posterior is formed from brain tissue, release hormones into blood stream
77
Q

components of physiological/hormone response to stress

A
  • CRH - corticotrophin releasing hormone
  • ACTH - peptide hormone
  • Glucocorticoids - steroid
  • adrenalin, noradrenalin - monoamines
78
Q

normones, neurotransmitters and receptors

A
  • steroids can directly penetrate cell membrane and act on intracellular receptors
  • standard mechanism is bind to surface reeptors which stimulate intracellular production of secondary messenger
79
Q

fast, neurally mediated response to stress

A
  • stressor activates circuits in amygdala, hypothalamus and brain stem
  • hypothalamus send neural message through spian cord
  • sympatetic dividsion is activated, stimulates medulla of adrenal gland
  • adrenal medulla release epinephrine into circulatory system
  • epinephrine activate body cells in endocrine glands and brain
  • monoamines lead to mobilisation of metabloic resources and shifts in blood circulation to facilitate vigorous activity
80
Q

slow, hormonally mediated response to stress

A
  • hypothalamus release CRH into pituitary gland
  • pituitary gland release ACTH whihc act on cortex of adrenal gland
  • adrenal cortex release cortisol into circulatory system
  • cortisol activate body cells, endocrine gladns and brain
  • enhance ability to use fats and proteins in metabolism
  • inability to produce glucocorticoids greatly increases vulnerability to stress
81
Q

stress and responses to painful stimuli

A
  • acute stressors induce an ‘analgesic’ effect -involves suppression of incoming ‘noiceptive’ information
  • process involves release of endogenous opioid peptides and monoamines
  • different types of stress activate different mechanisms
82
Q

stress and feeding

A

Cottone

  • not receiving expected reward is stressful and reduces consumption of normal food
  • effect can be reversed by treatment with CRH receptor antagonist, associated with increased levels in amygdala

Bryce & Floresco

  • stress/CRF modulates choice in decision making task
  • stress reduces high reward choice, CRF antagonism abolishes the difference
83
Q

effects of chronic stress

A
  • chronic exposure may be assocated with loss of usual feedback control by cortisol on production and release of CRH and ACTH, cortisol levels remain high
  • changed hippocampal function and structure which is associated with depression
84
Q

stress and immune function

A
  • glucocorticoid release leads to suppression of inflammation and immune responses
  • tissue damage leads to increased release or cytokines
  • cytokines act as CNS receptors to produce beahvioural effects
  • these feelings promote rest and recovery and enhance biological fitness
85
Q

individual difference in response to stress

A
  • enzyme catechol-o-methyl-transferase (COMT) important in dopamine degradation
  • gene variants MET and VAL influence the enzyme activity
  • dopamine levels play important role in regulating activity in CSTC loops
  • MET variants may prone to greater stress responses
  • VAL variants need greater activation of CSTC loops
86
Q

james - lange theory of emotional responses

A

stimulus -> physiological response -> sense response -> emotional feelings

87
Q

‘folk’ psychology theory of emotional responses

A

stimulus -> evaluate -> emotional response -> physiological response

88
Q

objections to james lange theory

A

Cannon & Bard

  • disconnection of viscera from brain does not disturb emotional experience
  • viscera are poorly innervated and viscera changes too slow to be direct source of emotional experiences
89
Q

Damasio somatic marker hypothesis

A

-feelings arent at conscious level but can guide or influence decision making

90
Q

2 factor theory/origin of emotional response

A
  • arousal was manipulated by administration of adrenalin

- physiological arousal enhanced emotion that was induced

91
Q

Schacter & Singer 1962

adrenalin

A
  • two groups given adrenalin
  • one told theyd get increased heart rate
  • others told nothing
  • entered room with actor who acted euphoric or angry
  • when asked to report on feelings those in group 2 had feelings that matched the actor
92
Q

Zajonc’s Affective Primacy theory

A

stimulus -> unconscious affect -> feeling

  • idea preconscious processing can be important determinant of emotional responses
  • exposure effect in which pre exposed to patterns or stimuli produces increased liking for those stimuli
93
Q

classifying emotions

A
  • approaches vary in extent to which they accept that there number of primal emotions
  • social constructionist approach suggest emotional responses are constructed to give meaning to world
94
Q

limbic system

A

cingulate cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala, mammillothalamic tract anterior thalamus

95
Q

Papez circuit

emotion circuit

A

cortex->mammilary body-> anterior thalamic nuclei -> gyrus cinguli

  • lesions to temporal lobes lead to inappropriate oral behaviour, hypersexuality
  • electrical stimulation in hypothalamic sites could ellicit attack, defense or flight
96
Q

effects of localised electrical stimulation of hypothalamus

A

stimulation of anterior produces ‘sham rage’ but stimulus of lateral hypothalamus produced directed rage

97
Q

Somatic marker experiment

A

IOWA gambling task

  • damage to prefrontal cortex or amygdala impaired acquisition of task and no anticipatory SCRs
  • on simple aversive classical conditioning task VMF and amygdala damage produce different effects on skin conductance
98
Q

fear conditioning in rats

A
  • rat learn relationship between specific conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus in context
  • amygdala lesion abolish specific CS contextual conditioning whereas hippocampal lesion effects are confined to context
99
Q

anatomy of fear

A

LA-inputs from auditory thalamus and cortex, somatosensory thalamus and cortex
CE-outputs projecting to central grey in midbrain to laterla and paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus

100
Q

Panksepps emotional arousal systems

A

fear: central and lateral amygdala, medial hypothalamus and glutamate
panic: anterior cingulate, preoptic area, dorsal thalamus, opiods, glutamate
rage: medial amygdala, bed nucleus of stria teminalis, medial and perifomical hypothalamic, glutamate
seeking: nucelus accumbens, mesolimbic and mesocortical outputs
lust: preoptic hypothalamus, steriods, vasopressin, oxytocin

101
Q

seeking, wanting and liking

A

seeking system is similiar to wanting or incentive motivation processes
anatomically based on medial forebrain bundle where self stimulation originally identified
liking is modified by opioids in nucleus accumbens

102
Q

what is learning

A
  • relatively permanent change in behaviour that occur as result of experience
  • doesnt include reflexes, taxes or instincts
103
Q

limitation of innate responses

A

stimulus must be physcially present in environment
little opportunity to modify result
modification on evolutionary (phylogenetic) tiem scale not individual time scale

104
Q

functions of learning and memory

A
  • non associative learning
  • associative learning
  • habituation
105
Q

classical (respondent) conditioning

A
  • unconditioned stimulus produces unconditioned response
  • neutral stimulus produces no salivation stimulus
  • unconditioned stimulus repeatedly presented after neutral response
  • nuetral stimulus alone produces conditioned response
  • neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus
106
Q

principles of respondent conditioning

A
  • acquisition when CS-US reinforcement
  • reinforcement of CS by US
  • extinction
  • spontaneous recovery
  • reacquisition
  • generalisation
  • discrimination
107
Q

relevance of respondent conditioning

A

extends mechanism of behavioural adaptation beyond simple reflexes
ontogenci ‘adaptation’
ubiquitous and preserved
laws of classical conditioning shape emotional life

108
Q

pavlov corticol model of learning and memory

A

when connection between CS and US is conditioned, area of cortex activated bby CS becomes physically connected with activatd US

109
Q

thorndikes laws of learning

A

law of effect: behaviour that leads to positive outcome more likely to occur in future
law of exercise: connections between responses and outcomes are strengthened by repetition
law of readiness:learning is motivated by internal state

110
Q

instrumental/operant conditioning

A
  • behaviour changes the environment
  • behaviour is goal directed
  • form associations between behaviour and consequence (positive or negative)
  • behaviours shaped by schedules of reinforcement
111
Q

skinners operant behaviourism

A
  • reinforcer: stimulus/event increases likelihood of preceding behaviour to occur
  • positive reinforcer: stimulus produced by behaviour that increases likelihood of preceding behvaiour to occur
  • negative reinforcer: stimulus eliminated by behaviour that increases likelihood of preceding behaviour to occur
    punishment: neg event/stimulus that decrease likelihood of preceding behaviour to occur
    omission: elimination of positive reinforcer decreases likelihood of preceding behaviour
112
Q

schedules of reinforcemnt

A

continuous: each behavioural response is reinforced
partial: behaviour reinforced only part of time
ratio schedules (fixed or variable): reinforcement given after every nth response
interval schedules (fixed or variable): reinforcement given after certain amount of time

113
Q

nn

A

nn

114
Q

principles of associative learning

A
  • learning through reinforcement
  • association by continguity: co-occurrence in space and time
  • arbitrariness: any stimulus any response
  • passive organism: learning happens to organism
115
Q

taxonomies of memory

A

-non associative learning: habituation or sensitization
-associative learning: respondent or operant conditioning
-declarative/explicit: smeantic or episodic
non declarative/implicit: procedural or skill learning

116
Q

principle of equipotentiality and mass action

A

all cortical regions can mediate learning equally

ability to learn is proportional to amount of cortex available

117
Q

brain regions involved in learning

A

hippocampus: declarative and spatial memories
cerebellum: procedural memories
amygdala: emotional memories, pavlovian associations
frontal cortex: short term memory, working memory

118
Q

cellular basis of memory storage

A
  • neurogenesis occur between olfactory bub, hippocampal formation and neocortex
  • new synapses could be generated to store new memories
  • new synapses anatomically connected
  • upon activation synapses are ‘strengthened’ and incorporated into memory network
119
Q

Hebbian learning and memory

A

Snails siphon:

  • stimulated, snail withdraw gills for protection
  • stimulus activated receptions in siphon, which directy or indirectly activates motor neuron which withdraws gills
  • when repeated stimulation, stimulation lead to decrease in neurotransmitter released into synpase and motor neuron
120
Q

3 ways body uses energy

A

-basal metabolism: 55% of energy to maintain body temp and resting functions
digestion fo food: 33% energy used to break down macromolecules into micromolecules
active behavioural processes:12-13% energy usage fro behaviours other than rest
-remaining energy stored as energy reserves

121
Q

sources of energy

A

carbs: converted to glucose, stored as glycogens in muscles and liver
amino acids: proteins, converted to glucose
lipids:long term storage
vitimins and minerals

122
Q

homestasis and drive reduction

A
  • set point: physiological parameter
  • error detector: compares actual state against set state
  • error correction mechanism: neg feedback
123
Q

food and homestasis

A

set points:
glucostatic-eating is controlled by deviations from hypothetical blood glucose
lipostatic-eating controlled by hypothetical body fat set point

124
Q

dual centre hypothesis

A
  • feeding dedicated areas: corpus callosum, hippocampus, cortex, ventromedial, arcute nucelus, ventromedial hypothalamus, lateral hypothalamus
  • lesions to VMH increase feeding and weight as its satiety centre
  • lesions of LH decrease feeding and weight as its hunger centre
125
Q

Ghrelin and orexin

A
  • peptide hormones secreted in gut from adipose tissue and hypothalamus
  • ghrelin increases hunger and promotes fat storage
  • orexin regulates arousal
126
Q

cholecystokinin and leptin

A
  • cholecystokinin is released in intestines in response to fat, stimulates enzyme secretion
  • leptin is produced by adipose tissue and binds to receptors in ventromdeial nucelus of hypothalamus, it decreases appetite
127
Q

appetite as motivational system

A
  • appetite is neg feedback system based on competitions between hunger and satiety signals
  • dedicated drives signal indicating the need for nutrients: hormones an dlateral hypothalamus
  • dedicated drives signal related to food ingestion: ventral medial hypothalamus an dhormones
128
Q

drive reduction theory

thorndike and hull

A

law of readiness: learning is motivated by internal state

proposed that reinforcer supports learning as alleviates internal state of derivation

emphasis on homeostasis: imbalance create arousal that initiates reaction to decrease arousal

129
Q

components of homeostatic system

A

system variable: variable controlled by systems
set point: desired level of variable
sensor: mechanism for measuring variable
effector system: behavioural/physiological mechanism to change variable and restore homeostasis
principle: number of physiological variables that must be maintained within narrow limits

130
Q

regulation of body temperature

A

cells in pre-optic area oh hypothalamus sense brain temp
thermal sensors throughout periphery
hypothalamus controls physiological and behavioural responses to regulate temperature

131
Q

thirst and homeostasis

A
  • direct water loss occurs primarily from extracellular compartment
  • intracellular and intravascular fluid volume and composition msut be pet in precise limits
132
Q

osmometric thirst

A
  • extracellular fluid consist of water and salts
  • water loss causes salt conc to increase
  • increase in salts create osmotic imbalance between extra and intra cellular compartments, water leaves intra by osmosis
  • drinking is directly proportional to additional salt load
  • changes in osmolarity are monitored by cells in organum vasculosum
133
Q

hypovolemic thirst

A

loss of extracellular fluid levels can induce thrist in absene of osmotic changes
thirst stimulus arises from 2 systems whihc measure blood pressure: kidneys and heart

134
Q

angiotensin and drinking

A
  • hypovolemia causes release of enzyme renin from kidneys
  • renin converts blood born molecules into angiotensin
  • angiotensin stimulates pituitary gland and kidneys to release hormone to conserve water
  • increase blood pressure by vasoconstriction
  • stimulate drinking by binding to receptors in subfornical organ
135
Q

atrial baroreceptor

A
  • atria of heart contain neurons that detect stretch of arterial wall
  • volume of return blood is detected by baroreceptors
  • info is sent to nucleu of solitary tract and then onto medial preoptic area
136
Q

learning effects in eating

A

step 1: pavlovian conditioning
step 2: satiate with free feeding
step 3: back to conditioned stimulus and it produces over eating

137
Q

measuring taste hedonics in humans and rats

A
  • influence of pleasure
  • dopamine levels related to pleasure so increase when eating sweet things but decrease when eating bitter things
  • gene mutation that increases dopamine activity makes mice want more sucrose without changing their liking for it
  • liking is mediated by opiod and GABA systems
  • nucleus accumbens, hypothalamus, amygdala
138
Q

limbic system

A
  • frontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala and nucleus accumbens alter hypothalamic processes to influence motivation and emotion
  • connections between limbic system and hypothalamus integrate homeostatic and non-homeostatic mechanisms infeeding, drinking and temp reg.
139
Q

paul ekman basic emotions in facial expressions

A 
anger
fear
disgust
surprise
happiness
sadness
fear and sadness
140
Q

what are the additions to the 6 basic emotions

A

jealousy
guilt
embarrassment

141
Q

jaak panksepp 4 basic emotional system

A

fear
seeking
panic
rage

142
Q

basic emotions definition

A

intense but short lived affective responses to an event which is associated with specific body change

143
Q

evolutionary emotion definiton

A
  • specialised modes of operation shaped by natural selection to adjust physiological, psychological and behavioural parameters
  • increase capacity to respond adaptively to threats and opportunities characteristic of specific situations
144
Q

key function of emotion signalling

A
  • facilitate social cohesion and reduce uncertainty
  • used as signals
  • crucial in decision making
145
Q

evolutionary origin of smile

A
  • threatening vocalisations in dominance displays involve bringing corners of mouth forward to lengthen vocal tract an dlower resonances
  • non threatening vocalisations used in display of submission draw lips back into smile
146
Q

lateralisation in processing of emotions

A

right hemisphere advantage, shift to left hemisphere when processing pro vs anti social expressions

  • anti social expressions processed in right hemisphere
  • where look with left gaze we process more negative emotions
147
Q

parallels in lateralisation in animals

A

sheep, horses, humans and chimps use left visual field more than right for detecting negative emotion cues
-horses better at matching owners voice to sight when owner in right visual field

148
Q

approaches to studying social behaviour

A

mechanistic: understand mechanism by which trait achieved
ontogenetic: factors influencing development of trait
functional: understanding fitness consequences of trait
evolutionary: unravel history of trait

149
Q

ideas on why humans are social

A
  • selfish, solitary and aggressive but enter social contract to curb their naturally selfish instincts
  • group living benefits individuals so that behaviours which facilitate group living are favoured
150
Q

darwins theory of evolution

A
  • continual competition between individuals for resources in a population and some individuals contribute more offspring to next gen
  • provided offspring resemble parents, traits of individuals that leave more offspring will increase in frequency over time
  • evolutionary fitness
  • produces evolutionary change due to individual survival and reproduction
151
Q

what is evolutionary fitness

A

contribution of individual gene to gene pool in next generation

152
Q

benefits of group living for prey

A
  • lower probability of being killed by predators
  • better at finding and capturing food
  • improved competitive ability
  • improved success at rearing own young
153
Q

costs of group living for prey

A
  • increased chance of being detected by predator
  • higher risk of parasitism
  • resources must be shared
  • increased risk of reproductive suppression for subordinates
154
Q

what happens when benefits of group lviing outweigh the costs

A

can be direct selection on individuals to live in groups

155
Q

indirect benefits of group living

A
  • inclusive fitness: total fitness that an individual gains, by breeding itself and by helping close relatives breed
  • increase own fitness by helping relatives to breed as share genes
  • kin selection: process by which characteristics are favoured due to beneficial effects on survival of close relatives
  • reciprocated altruism: provided benefit of altruistic act is greater than costs of donor and must be reciprocated at later date
156
Q

what is altruistic behaviour

A

behaviour that increases evolutionary fitness of recipient at some cost to the donor

157
Q

communication as basis of social behaviour

A
  • adapted signals to mediate relationships and sat in contact with others
  • mechanism that allows for social behaviour
  • transmit info on identity of signaller to receiver
  • allow different ranked individuals to communicate without fighting
158
Q

relating social systems to mating and sexual selection

A

mating system: affected by system parental care and defensibility of females

sexual selection: affected by relative importance of physical or behavioural traits in determining success of breeding

159
Q

sexual selection

A

process by wihc secondary sexual traits become elaborated because they increase ability to gain mates
generated by two processes: intrasexual competition and intersexual competition

160
Q

what is intra sexual competition

A

competition between members of same sex about a mate

161
Q

what in inter sexual competition

A

choice/preference by members of one sex for particular mating partners

162
Q

key forms of intra sexual competition

A

direct combat: males with large body size and weaponry selected
sperm competition: ales whose sperm successful in fertilising eggs selected

163
Q

key parameters of inter sexual choice

A

good genes: males chosen based on characteristics that indicate high genetic quality and high viability for offspring

attractive sons: choose highly attractive males so have more attractive sons that will be chosen by females in next gen

sensory exploitation: choose males that exploit their innate sensory biases

164
Q

sexual dimorphism

A

where the two sexes of the same species exhibit different characteristics beyond the differences in their sexual organs such as males usually larger, extravagant displays and more developed weaponry
-individual with higher potential reproductive rate competes for sex with lower potential reproductive rate

165
Q

sexual displays

A

bring sexes together for mating and influecne outcome of intrasexual competiton and intersexual choice
information transferred via signals that may be visual, acoustic or olfactory

166
Q

displays and intra sexual competition

A
  • opponents are rarely equally matched, differ in ability to acquire or defend resource (resource holding potential)
  • evolutionary models have shown that where fighting is costly, individuals monitor RHP of opponent to judge if have likely chance of winning
  • red deer: roaring rate and parallel walking, 50% of challenges result in fights
167
Q

displays and inter sexual choice

A
  • displays function to attract mating partners of opposite sex
  • provide a means of choosing a mate -
  • provides the ‘best’ mate available at that current time
168
Q

cognition

A

mental process concerned with acquisition and manipulation of knowledge including perception and thinking

169
Q

referential signalling

A

use of signals to functionally denote external objects and events
response urgency-different signals for high urgency threat or low urgency threat

170
Q

language ability in animals

A

attach acoustic labels to objects and events (semantic)

label social relationships in some species

171
Q

Dasser 1988

labelling social relationships

A

-jave monkeys (female)
-shwon slides of members of socail group and trained to distinguish between mother-offspring pairs and rewarded for successful pairings
-shown slides of additional unseen pairs
-high success rate despite diverse exemplars of age/sex/class
-

172
Q

knowledge of third party relationships

A
  • knowledge of dominance between other individuals has fitness benefits, able to assess potential allies
  • baboons know vocal interactions between dominants and subordinates
  • male bonnet macaques use info about thrid party relationships when recruit support, choose allies that outrank themselves AND opponents
173
Q

tactical deception

A
  • short term tactics where elements from honest counterpart in repertoire used in deceptive act
  • concealment, distraction, creating image, manipulation of target with social tool, deflection of target to fall guy and counter deception
174
Q

theory of mind

hare 2000 - chimps

A
  • attribute a visual perspective to others
  • appear to know what other individuals have and have not seen
  • recall what conspecific has and hasnt seen in immediate past
175
Q

theory of mind

santos - monkeys

A

appear to know hwat others can and cannot hear
when human competitor looking at them, stole grapes from noisy and silent containers
when competitor look away, preferentially stole from silent container

176
Q

theory of mind

krupenye - apes

A

pass false belief test
understanding hallmark of human theory of mind
-shown through anticipatory looking

177
Q

theory of mind

crockford - chimps

A

aware of ignorance and knowledge in others

more likely to make alarm call in response to snake when unaware group members than aware group members

178
Q

theory of mind

dally, emery, clayton - birds

A

preferentially store food in distant sites when watched by another jay, but used near and distant whne observer view blocked
items stored in observer view where moved multiple times

179
Q

theory of mind

hare, miklosi, call - dogs

A

perform better than primates at using human social cues to find hidden food, ability is present in puppies
highly sensitive to attentional states in humans
due to associative learning or mental state understanding is unknown

Uni-year 1 & 2 (12 decks)

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