Contemporary Approaches Flashcards
What happens in hypnosis session
Induction; 10 minutes
Suggestions; motor, challenge, cognitive
Measuring suggestibility
Old standards
- hypnotic suggestibility stable over time but does not correlate with major personality dimensions
- Stanford hypnotic susceptibility scale
- Waterloo Stanford group scale of hypnotic susceptibility
- Sussex Waterloo scale of hypnotisability
Methodology in hypnosis research
Orne 1959
Real simulator design
Simulators are low susceptibility subjects asked to fool hypnotist into believing they are highs
Simulator behaviour = demand characteristics
Are hypnotised subjects just lying?
Kinnunen 1994
- people give higher skin conductance responses when lying than telling truth
- experiememt: subject pick up object when asked if it was an apple they lie or tell truth, SCRs increased for both hypnotic and waking subjects when in critical condition
Real simulator design
genuineness of experience
Subjects asked about genuine of experience
89% responses for real
36% responses for simulators
-doesn’t mean all 89% telling truth
Are hypnotised subjects faking?
PET scan
Scanned brains of subjects hypnotically induced paralysis or faked paralysis
When asked to attempt to move PET scan show brain activity
-more activation in right orbitofrontal cortex
-less activation in left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex
Are hypnotised subjects zombies
Crawford 1992
22 people interviewed after stage hypnosis show, 86% reported positive experiences and 36% reported being confused
23z believed hypnotists had full control
Will hypnotised subjects perform dangerous or anti social acts?
Orne and Evans 1965
-asked put hand in box of snakes or throw nitric acid in face of assistant, 5/6 did it
Coe 1973
-26 high subjects selected, told in future they’d be hypnotised, asked to sell heroin, drive to flat, say code word, deliver bags, collect $100
-given instructions under hypnosis or when awake, 9 subjects did the crime, 3/12 from hypnosis and 6/14 from non hypnosis group
-whether go through with crime or not depends on how act conflicts with moral values
Being active in successful hypnotic response
Experimental analysis technique (EAT)
After hypnosis watch the sessions back and provide commentary on what they experienced or thought
Subjects can be constructive
Hypnotised subjects not passive
Highly hypnotisable subjects can choose:
-how to respond to suggestions
-whether to change suggestions to suit them
-whether respond at all
-not all subjects realise they have this control
Common belief about hypnosis
hypnotised subject is in trance
-hypnotic induction produces an altered state of consciousness in which subjects are especially suggestible
hypnotic induction : meanings
- around for 200 ish years
- hypnosis is greek word for sleep
- conventional, traditional induction includes repeated suggestions about relax and sleep
responsiveness to suggestion
Braffman and Kirsch 1999
- without induction 2/7 suggestions passed
- with induction 3-7 suggestions passed
- induction doesn’t achieve much
stroop interference and hypnotic suggestion
Raz 2002
Raz 2006
-incongruent and neutral words
-hypnotic suggestion “foreign language that is meaningless”
-participants in control 110ms
-participants in suggestion 30ms, reduced stroop effect
2006:
-suggestion reduced stroop effect regardless if hypnotic or non-hypnotic
-hypnotic induction adds nothing to power of suggestion
traditional relaxation induction and effects
braffman and kirsch 1999
- increases suggestibility by small amount
- increase in response accompanied by greater expectation of responding
- IF its only expectation and belief thats responsible fro increase in suggestibility, anything can be induction if subject believes it
Banyai and Hilgard 1976
awake hypnosis
- “active alert induction”
- cycle on stationary bicycle, induction uses words like alert instead of sleepy
- no significant difference between traditional and active alert induction
- both scored 5/8
neurolinguistic programming - double induction
bandler and grindler
- claim double induction was “powerful and deepening technique”
- hand levitation induction in ear on contralateral side to dominant cerebral hemisphere, simultaneously hear grammatically childlike messages in other ear
- enables “direct communication to unconscious”
neurolinguistic programming
kirsch, mosher, matthews - double induction
lynn 1987 - indirect suggestions
- number of suggestions passed out of 12
- double induction not more significant than standard induction
-indirect inductions ad suggestions not more effective than traditional induction
effective inductions
glass and barber 1961
william james 1890
- sugar pill which subjects are told “induce hypnotic state” is as effective as standard hypnotic induction
- bright button, stroking the head, staring into eyes, drinking magnetised water
- induction is anything subject believes is an induction
markers of hypnotic state
- none yet detected
- brain isn’t in state like sleep
- no brainwaves special to hypnotic responding
- no patterns of activation revealed by brain imaging that is a marker of “hypnosis”
altered state
-states where people become more suggestible
-taking LSD, cannabis, alcohol
-subjects can and do feel they are in trance and report inward absorbed attention/relaxation
henry 1985
-subjective experience in hypnosis
-time going faster or slower
-external sounds clearer or muffled
matched subject preconceptions
kirsch 1992
was it relaxation or hypnotic induction?
- 24 hypnotisable subjects given hypnotic induction or progressive relaxation
- open ended reports about subjective state before and afetr responding to suggestion
- 13 state theorists and 9 non state theorists, 48% accuracy in classifying reports as following hypnotic or relaxation induction
history of hypnosis
- main phenomenon: spirit possession
- hysteria
- demonic possession
- animal magnetism
- modern times: hypnosis
- all have in common; suggestion and power of belief, altered sense of volition and perception of reality
hysteria
- psychological disorder characterised by physical symptoms without an organic cause
- conversion disorder or ‘somatic symptom disorder’
- symptoms: paralyses, blindness, deafness, convulsions
wandering womb theory of hysteria
- when not had a baby, womb moves around body restlessly causing symptoms of hysteria
- prayers can ‘calm’ the womb
- hard to distinguish between demonic possession and hysteria
Franz Anton Mesmer
- use of magnets as treatments
- franscisca oesterline had convulsions, magnets produced convulsions in applied area and improvement after was felt
- patients convulsed as it was belief that is was a typical response to exorcisms etc
- when sat in tubs of magnetised water and iron filings, experienced ‘crisis’
french royal commission 1794
found effects of magnetism were due to imagination and belief
pusegur 1780
- disliekd idea of crisis
- mesmerised peasants who were unaware of ‘crisis’ and one feel asleep instead of convulsing
- as got fame, research spread and gradually more people began to feel sleepy rather than convulsing
James Braid 1843
mesmerism is ‘hypnosis’
sleep like state brought about by fixation of the eyes and concentrating on one idea
orne 1959
if tell people ‘good subjects will stick out right arm when hypnotised’ they will do this when hypnotised
1900s amnesia
most hypnotisable people had spontaneous amnesia but only if amnesia was suggested
hypnosis-contrast
oracle of tibet
- monk was consulted about difficult decisions
- taken over by the deity Pehar Gyalpo
- spontaneously dances in heavy dress and gives advice and deliberation
- monk denies being under conscious action
hypnotic pain relief
-proven clinical effectiveness in dealing with chronic or acute pain; labour, medical/dental procedure, pain associated with cancer, headache, fibromyalgia
Milling 2002
-pain applied to finger for open minute
-control experience higher levels of pain than hypnotic suggestion
-hypnotic and non hypnotic suggestion had equivalent degree of pain relief
-degree of pain relief corresponded with hypnotisability
hypnotherapy
-addition of hypnosis to existing effective therapy
Kirsch 1995
-review of 18 studies comparing CBT with or without hypnosis
-conditions treated in studies: obesity, anxiety, hypertension
-if received therapy with hypnosis they were better off than 75% of those without hypnosis
-hypnosis enhanced effectiveness even when only difference was calling the therapy hypnotic
-20lbs lost in hypnotic condition compared to 5lbs in non-hypnotic condition
hypnotherapy for smoking cessation
Holroyd 1980
- 0-50% abstinent at 6 months
- other reviews suggest 1/4-1/3 abstinent 6 months
- outcome is not correlated with hypnotisability
wart removal
- hypnotic suggestion causes wart remission but not attributable to spontaneous remission
- direct suggestions responsible not hypnosis
memory recovery techniques
age regression: suggestion person go “back in time” to event and relive it
:suggest to “see better”; using metaphor such as television, blank screen, chalk board, video recorder
does hypnosis help or hinder
Nogrady 1985
-learn 60 names on slides
-phase 1: 2 attempts to recall
-phase 2: 1/2 hypnotic induction, 1/2 control, 2 attempts to recall
-phase 3: after post hypnotic suggestion, brought out of hypnosis, final 2 attempts to recall
results:
-control: more chances to recall the more names recalled, rated low confidence
-hypnosis: same pattern but overall recalled fewer names, recalled more incorrect names, rated very confident
remembering more
- hypnotic hypermnesia is apparent increase in memory
- new material reported during hypnosis is often incorrect
- worryingly, hypnosis makes people inappropriately confident (confident witness is not always accurate)
- people strong beliefs and expectations that hypnosis improves memory may work against usefulness of hypnosis improving memory
misinformation in hypnosis
- legal case: elderly schoolteacher raped, tortured and murdered
- suspect hypnotised at police request
- convicted as post hypnosis recalled the use of rake (which was withheld from public info) to know about rake, jury concluded he must have been at scene
- hypnotist used “was it a rake? where’d you get rake from?”
- hypnotised individuals more likely to accept subtle changes in memory, develop inappropriate confidence in accuracy of remembering
can one construct completely false memory in hypnosis?
Laurence & Perry 1983; Labelle 1990
- subjects nominate night where they slept solidly
- age regressed back to that night
- “tell me whether you hear loud noises..door slamming”
- after hypnosis, 34% subjects claimed noises happened that night
- when told explicitly noises were suggested, 25% insistent pseudo-memory real
age regression
Nash 1987
- does not literally reinstate childhood functioning
- age regressed subjects behave how they believe children would behave
- experience still feels real
reports of recall
- being born, past reincarnations, alien abduction, satanic ritual abuse
- should reduce rather than gain credibility by use of hypnosis
measuring suggestibility
- old standards: HCSHS, SHSS
- more recent: WGSHS, CURSS
- hypnotisability stable over time, test re-test correlation over 25 years = .75
- normal distribution for hypnotisability, 80% medium
heritability of hypnotisability
Morgan 1973
correlation of hypnotisability between identical twins =.52 between non-identical = .18 heritability = .64 both genetic and environmental components
is hypnotisability social conformity
Moore 1964
- influenceability: make judgement on case studies, given false information on judgements of peer group; see if judgement changes
- autokinetic test: look at stationary light and estimate its movement; as group give large numbers; alone again see if judgement changes
- influencibility = .21
- autokinetic = -.08
- acquiscience = -.07
- social desirability =. 11
- no systematic relation between hypnotisability and social desirability
hypnotisability and imaginative involvement
Tellegen and Atkinson
Wilson and Barber
- small correlation between hypnotisability and tendency to become absorbed in imaginative activities
- one subset of fantasy prone individuals live in make believe world, have vivid memories, out of body and intense religious experiences and strong effect of mind on body
hypnotisability and imaginative involvement (with and without induction)
Braffman and Kirsch
- measured hypnotisability with and without induction
- expectancy: for each suggestion rate how much they THOUGHT they would respond
- motivation: for each suggestion rate how much they WANT to respond
- results: induction rated higher across motivation, fantasy proneness, expectancy (highest rating)
hypnotisability and imaginative involvement
woody 1997
subjective response to placebo alcohol correlated with hypnotisability
circadian rhythm
- regular patterns of activity 24 hour cycles
- humans are diurnal and have endogenous cycles (brain and body spontaneously generate own rhythms)
- control of : sleep-wake, eat/drink, body temp, urination, hormone secretion etc
average body temperatures
- 6 hours before sleep onset, body temperature at peak of around 37.1 degrees
- 2 hours after sleep onset, bodytemp at lowest of around 36.7 degrees
early circadian rhythm discoveries
- Biorhythms not unique to humans and animals; flowers open in day close at night
- Jean Jacque Mairin 1792; mimosa plant, even if isolated from cues leaves continue rhythmic behaviour
- Aschoff and weber 1989; humans in underground bunker with no cues, turn on light at will, participants continued daily sleep activity rhythms although they extended to 25/27hours
whats purpose of circadian rhythms
keep internal workings in phase with outside world
flying squirrel experiment
- kept in dark for 25 days
- each waking period started earlier than the day before
- each sleep period starts earlier than day before
zeitgeber
- external cues that set our biological cock
- light is most potent cue
- when rhythm is reset its said to be entrained
jet lag
- disruption of circadian rhythm due to crossing time zones
- stems from mismatch of circadian rhythm with external time
- travelling west is phase delay, travelling east is phase advance (more difficult)
- frequent travellers find more difficult to adjust due to constant asynchronous rhythm which is associated with altered sleep and temp rhythms, fatigue and stress
- brain clock rest faster than other organs
shift workers
- often need to make major adjustments esp. if night sifts
- fail to adjust completely
- night workers tend more accidents than day workers
- increases disease by altering function of immune system
- in order to minimise risk must maintain good sleep habits, diet and exercise, illumination during work and darkness during sleep
seasonal affective disorder
- type of depression where low levels of light in winter are not sufficient enough to entrain the circadian rhythms
- delayed sleep and temperature rhythms
- exposure to bright light can reset circadian clock and ameliorate depression - phototherapy
chronotypes
- cycles differ between people
- start of and finish off as larks
- during adolescence increasing shift towards being owl
- rhythms change as function of age across cultures, but depends on genes, environmental factors and age
- differences may result in social jet lag
- owls associated with lower grades, increased likelihood obesity and lower moods
Curt Paul Richter 1927
neural basis of biological clock
- introduced concept of brain generates own rhythms
- attempt to locate in brain
- wild rats activity level tested when using running wheels and found out they are active during dark and quiescent during light
- performed electrical lesions on various parts of brain
- rats lost rhythmic behaviour when lesion on hypothalamus
Moore & Eichler
stephan & zucker 1972
master clock in rats
- primary biological clock of rat located in suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus
- lesions of nucleus disrupted circadian rhythms of wheel running, drinking and hormonal secretion
- named master clock
suprachiasmatic nucleus
- group of cells in hypothalamus
- 50,00 neurons in humans, 20,000 in rats
- generates rhythms in controlled manner
- if lesioned animals still engage in behaviour just in haphazard way
- recording electrodes in SCN confirm neurons are more active during day
- single cell grown in culture produces action potentials in rhythmic pattern
how does light reach SCN
- photosensitive retinal ganglion cells form the retinohypothalamic tract
- PRCGs have own photopigment called melanopsin and can respond directly to light, not rely on rods or cones
- part of tract terminates in midbrain to control pupil size in response to light
SCN input
- retinohypothalamic tract
- non photic information suhc as arousal/eating comes from Raphe Nucleus and intergeniculate leaflet of thalamus
- projects to 15 brain regions
- input from 35 regions directly
- inout from 85 regions indirectly
what makes clock tick
Hall and Rosbash
- SCN in fruit flies
- per genes and PER protein
- builds up in cells overnight and broken down in day
Young
- tim gene and TIM protein
- when TIM meets PER they combine and shut the period gene down
feedback loop
- 10 genes and protein products involved
- transcription from DNA to mRNA
- translation into proteins which form dimers
- dimers enter nucleus in order to inhibit transcription
- then dimers decay
- cycle begins again in rhythm
SCN effects
- regulates waking an dsleeping by controlling activity levels in other areas of body eg pituity gland and pnieal gland
- Pituitary gland: sympathetic, light phase, arousal activities
- pineal gland: parasympatheitc, darkphase, rest activities, breeding (levels of melatonin decrease and allow gonads to enlarge and produce testosterone)
facts to do with circadian rhythms
- time of day affects performance in human subjects on wide range of cog tasks measuring attention, executive functions and memory
- fluctuations in performance are contingent upon chronotype of individuals
- treatment of disease can be influenced by circadian rhythm
- risk of illness changes depending on day eg stroke more likely in morning
changes made due to awareness of circadian rhythms
- US navy adopted its shift to 24hrs rather than 18hrs
- sports teams hire consultants regarding possibel performance changes due to travelling to different time zones
- can monitor behaviour being aware of how it interfere with circadian rhythms
definition of sleep
natural, periodic state that involves reduced response to environmental stimuli and decreased mobility
differs from coma, vegetative states
what is sleep controlled by
homeostatic processes: if dont sleep we accumulate sleep debt and make up for it next time sleep
circadian: sleep tends to occur at particular time in 24hr period
measures of sleep
subjective measures: ask people using questionnaires
objective measures: actigraphy, polysomnography
what is actigraphy
special watches that record activity during day and night, non invasive
study activity and estimate duration and quality of sleep
what is polysomography
recording of electrical activity from multiple sources
EEG recordings of activity or neurons in brain
EOG recordings of activity of muscles around eyes
EMG recordings of muscles in body
what do we know about emotions?
-intense but hsort lived affective responses to significant events associated with bodily changes
do animals express emotions in facial cues?
eyes: degree of eye opening can be important cue, relaxed/narrow eyes mean more positive emotions
mouth: grin
facial action coding systems
- objectively describe facial movements in terms of underlying muscle movement
- convergences in muscle action units involved in specific expressions
- identify commonalities
- DogFACS, CatFACS, EquiFACS
- dont describe composite emotional expressions
AU101
action unit in dogs and horses
inner brow raise
for dogs it made them look sad so led to more adoptions, for horses also associative with negative emotions
animals and emotion discrimination
- sheep discern emotions in other sheep and humans, show 80% preference for calm sheep face or smiling human face
- dogs: left gaze bias to negative, right gaze bias to positive, match facial expression and corresponding vocalisation
advantages of emotion discrimination
- facilitates cohesion and reduces uncertainty
- established emotional expressions employed symbolically to signal about differences eg dominance
- crucial in decision making
do animals understand emotions?
parr 2001: chimps match emotional expression, ability to match emotional meaning
waller 2016: macaques predict future social outcomes from facial expressions, bared teeth display most associated with friendly outcomes
do animals experience empathy?
- cog empathy: emotional perspective taking, corresponding emotional response may match other individuals
- emotional contagion: emotional matching shown in species, not require discrimination, reflexive and important of roducing adaptive behaviour, precursor or simplified form of empathy
- consolation: univolved bystander provide contact comfort to victim of aggression
- grief/mourning: intense interest in dead body
animal empathy (rat) Bartel 2011
- learn to open door to release trapped rat from container
- when faced with two options: free rat or food subject would release rat and share the food
what do animals feel?
- stress: similar physiological stress reaction to humans, isolation from important social partners increased cortisol levels, close bonds between others act as buffer against stress
- shared neurobiology: evolutionary limbic brain regions associated with positive emotion
- depression: monkeys- when lost dominant position seratonin levels drop dramatically, refusal to eat, behaviours reversed when given prozac (seratonin reuptake inhibitor)
emotion and cog bias
- in negative state more likely make negative judgements
- trained that one cue predict positive outcome and another predicts negative event, when presented with ambiguous cues animals in more neg state more likely to judge cue as negative
evolution of emotional awareness
- emotions triggered by events of some significance/relevance, encompass co-ordinated changes in brain and body
- Darwin studied emotional expressions in dogs, cats and non-human primates, emotional communication affects natural social behaviour
- emotional signalling has key role in social behaviour
horse and emotional awareness
- social knowledge extends to familair humans- look towards correct handler on hearing playback of their voice
- Keeling 2009: emotion contagion, horse pick up on increased stress of person
- emotional awareness encompasses set of skills contributing to appraisal, regulation and expression of emotions
- more likely to approach positive attention and avoid aggression
do horses understand consequences of emotion
presented with photo of smiling or angry, several hours later saw same person in neutral
evidence shows past angry expression meant person perceived negatively
personality tests of horses
- response to novel objects
- physiological measures eg heart rate
- social networks: how much friendly behaviour they give and receive, relating emotional awareness to social success-more socially integrated have lower heart rate and cortisol levels
what is culture
psychological: teaching/conformity/social norms
biology: gene culture/conservation/social networks
anthropology: rituals/socials norms/tool use
mechanism of evolutionary change
- genetic inheritance is linear
- culture is mechanism of evolutionary change
- culture inheritance has many inputs, info can change rapidly
- inherit behaviour and knowledge through culture
examples of animal culture
-white faced capuchins: hand sniffing, inserting finger into eye
defining culture in humans
group identity: express indentity through shared culture
- symbolic markers: traits that indicate membership of particular groups
- symbolic reinforcement of rule systems
- emotional investment in continuation of rules
- rewards and punishments for varying behaviour
features/example of human cuture
learning social regulations eg social norms
acquire social norms socially
specific norms and rule systems reinforced
do animals have culture?
evidence of social learning
no evidence of social norms or morality
some evidence of cumulative culture
comparative view to defining culture
- culture as mechanism of evolutionary change
- culture socially acquired behaviour that results in within-group behavioural traditions
study of culture
- experimental manipulations: controlled environments with manipulations of variables
- observations: systematically recorded, ethnographic approach/method of exclusion
observations of culture
whales: sing cycles of 8 themes, several phases of individual notes, each new location has own song
- elephants: high fidelity to paths and resources over time, location preferences not explained by quality or accessibility
sex determination in mice and SRY
XX genotype but male phenotype had the SRY gene incorporated into one of their X chromosomes
sex determination in humans
- SRY gene produce masculinisation when incorporated into developing foetus
- X0 is turners syndrome
- XXY is klienefelters syndrome (male phenotype)
- XY genotype but female phenotype is down to mutations in steriod signalling pathways
what does SRY gene do
- stimulates production of HY antigen
- lead to differentiation of gonad into testis
- sertoli cells then secrete anti mullerian hormone which supresses development of oviducts
- leydig cells secrete testosterone which aides development of vas deferens and other secondary sex characteristics
biosynthesis and action of sex steroids
- testosterone/estradiol/adrenal steroids(cortisol) are synthesised from cholestral
- estradiol and 5α dihydrotestosterone(DHT) require specific enzymes to be transformed from testosterone
- E and DHT act at oestrogen or androgen receptors
- mutations in genes for enzymes or receptors may reduce or abolish action of sex steroids
- mutation in geen for cortisol pathway lead to excess androgen production which lead to masculinisation
foetal testosterone and sex differences
- 5α reductase or aromatase used to metabolise testosterone into 5α dihydrotestosterone or estradiol
- 5α dihydrotestosterone production is required to form differentiation of penis and testes weeks 6-12of pregnancy
- male differentiation of brain requires estradiol in second half of pregnancy
hormonal modulation of sexual and aggressive behaviour
- castrated male mammals show reduced sexual and aggressive behaviour
- spayed female mammals show reduced sexual behaviour
- changes in reproductive behaviour are sig correlated with changes in hormones
- replacement of steroid hormones after castration/oviecetomy reinstate behaviour
- removal of hormones in sexuall experienced may have less effect
where are neural circuits for sexual behaviour found
rodents: hypothalamus and brainstem for performance and nucleus accumbens for reward
- strong similarities in humans
organising and activating effects of hormones
Organizing effects continue to operate well after birth up until puberty
Activating effects of the sex hormones induce adult sexual function and behaviour around the time of puberty
organising and activating hormones experiment 1959
androgens given to female guinea pigs prenatally, guinea pigs failed to show female sexual behaviour as adults until exposed to testosterone
congenital adrenal hyperplasia
inherited recessive condition
- loss of enzyme in pathway for aldosterone synthesis which leads to excessive androgen production by adrenal gland during foetal development
- little effect on boys but lead to physical masculinisation of females
androgens and sport
synthetic androgens used and abused by men and women to enahnce perfomance
- increase lean body mass, stimulates red blood cell production and enhances visuospatial neuroal activation
- effects in women may be greater
- little evidence that naturally high levels improve performance
species differences in mating systems
- most common care pattern is single mum
- stable pair bonds with care of infants by both parents is found in some species but rare
- oxytocin and vasopressin important in development of pair bonds in prairie voles
role of vasopressin and oxytocin in prairie voles
strengthens pair preference
blockade of receptors weakens pair preference
large number of oxytocin receptors present in prairie vole
adding vasopressin receptors increases tendency to form pair bond
sex/gender differences in cognition
many cog tasks in which sex/gender effects have been claimed but relatively small
- mental rotation in virtual water maze demonstrates that men with more sensitive androgen receptors make fewer errors if testosterone levels low
- distinguish navigation using allocentric or egocentric strategies
what areas of brain does egocentric and allocentric depend on
egocentric: parietal cortex and basal ganglia
allocentric: hippocampal
baron and cohen 2005
sex differences
systemise is male typical:understand a system or other’s behaviour in terms of rules
empathise is female typical: understand system or other’s behaviour by identifying mental states and responding with appropriate emotion
evidence for genetic influence on autism spectrum disorder
- cluster of disorders associated with different gene variants and interacting with social and environmental factors
- mouse models mimic behavioural features of ASD but deficits are ameliorated by intranasal oxytocin
