Applying to everyday problems Flashcards
road accident facts
1.25 millions death each year (WHO 2015)
9th common cause of death
under reported
car manufacturers promote hands free phones is safe-distraction leads to death
Figures on driving and phone use
45% drivers text in UK according to RAC 2008
75% of 18-25 year olds text according to Pennay 2006 australia
Dingus 2016
naturalistic study
cars equipped with sensors and cameras
3,500 US drivers
case control method:compare what proceeds crash and non-crash events
mobile use increases likelihood of crashing 4 fold
using touch screen increases likelihood 5 fold
human visual system
visual acuity decreases at peripheral
eye makes 3 fixations a min
attention part of perception
change blindness-failure to detect visual change
inattentional blindness-failure to notice unexpected event when attention diverted to other aspect
theoretical model of attetnion
limited mental resources, selective attention required
distinction between automatic and controlled processing
Rasmussen: hierarchal model of driving: operational->tactical->strategic
Norman and shallice 1980
two systems in attention
lower level: contention scheduling
higher level: supervisory attentional system
automatic response to a trigger is lower level
if don’t get result from lower level, higher level relied on to get result
Hockeys compensation control theory
drivers may preserve performance on primary task at expense of secondary task
results in driving performance decreasing
Wickens multiple resource theory 1984 - task interference
task interference affected by 3 factors: mode of input (auditory, visual, tactile), type of coding (spatial, verbal), type of response (manual, visual)
Redelmeier and Tibshirani 1997 - phone bills and drivinh
case control study
itemised phone bills of 699 toronto drivers
driver reports crash, see if phone in use in moments leading up to crash
risk collision 3-6.5 times greater if phone in use
collision risk same for all types of drivers
Alm and Nilsson - braking responses
1994-braking reponse to symbol, RT increased from 0.95 to 1.3 when using phone
1995-emergency brake inresponse to car infront, RT increased from 1.6 to 2.2 when phone in use
Hancock, Lrsch and simmons -normal driving ….
normal driving is long periods of low demand interspersed with moments of crucial responses
RT in emergency braking slowed by dual task
Atchley 2017-difference between handheld or handsfree
no difference between hands free and hand held phone
81% phone studies show significant impairment
Strayer and Johnston 2001 - RT to red light and conversation
RT to red light
participnats listen to radio, converse over phone or undivided attention
active participation in conversing is problem
passive listening no affect on performance
loss of non-verbal cues requires more concentration to maintain convo
passengers adjust convo to driving conditions
Crundall, bains chapman and underwoods 2005 - phone distraction
participants drove in silence or conversed with passenger or on phone
phone just as distracting as mobile phone
Hyman unicycling clown 2010
watched students cross courtyard
noted how often change direction, acknowledgements
if on phone lack situation awareness, take longer to cross, change direction more, didnt see unicycling clown
recrate and nunes 2000- eye movement in driving
verbal and spatial imagery tasks while driving
both increased pupil size
both tasks reduced gaze distribution
spatial task produced more eye fixations
Briggs, hole and land 2011 - eye movement with phobics
eye movements in stimulated motorway driving
participants on phone, conversation about spiders
spider phobic more fixed view, cognitive tunnel vision
non phobic less fixations, lower cog tunnel vision
Briggs hole and land 2016-visual imagery
conversations involving visual imagery
imagery and perception share processing systems
imagery and ‘real world’ compete for attention
primary task: hazard perception
secondary task: sentence verification with imagery inducing or non imagery inducing statements
distracted participants detect fewer hazards
distraction increases with imagery induction
effects worse for high imageners
Drains on processing resources
driving-vehicle control, hazard perception, hazard detection, hazard perception, lane keeping
phones-problem solving, maintenance of convo, mental imagery, emotional effects of convo
immediate consequences:compensatory behaviour eg driving slower
ultimate consequences:increased RT to hazards, earlier onset fatigue
result in increased accident risk
psychological theories of driving
norman & shallice: theory of controlled and automatic processing-relying on contention scheduling
Hockeys compensatory control theory: compensate for impairment by using mirrors less, driving slower
wickens multiple resource theory: explain why driving and phone use interfere
why drivers use their phones
fail to notice own impairment, effects are cognitive as vehicle control not affected
self serving bias-better driver than everyone
faulty risk perception-illusion of control:self driving cars
protective beliefs-im a good driver
accidents are rare so no immediate penalties, every trip reinforces delusion they are safe
theory of planned behaviour
lieklihood of performing behaviour affected by:
perceived benefits-not wasting time
perceived costs-low accident risk
perceived acceptability-everyone does it
benefits and acceptability override costs
possible solutions to crashes
educate-make drivers aware
enforcement-detection and prosecution
engineering-ignition interlocks
future-driverless cars, drivers not distracted
driverless cars
semi autonomous:driver assisted systems, control driving for 5 seconds, there to support human ability, encourage laziness
fully autonomous:robot taxis,self driving cars dont require human driving
why mobile phones are problimatic
cognitive burden of maintaining convo
remote conversors unaware of driver situation
visual imagery competes with visual perception of surrounding
involve extended periods of distraction
whats clinical psychology
application of psychological theories to understand, prevent and alleviate distress
what do clinical psychologists do?
work in range of settings, with range of clients, all ages genders disabilities complete assessments formulate theories to undertsand suggets interventions communicate with clients and colleagues
key tasks of clinical psychologists
- assessment:process used to answer questions eg what led to problems
formulation: collaborative process, BioPsychoSocial focus, seek to explain problems
intervention: driven by formulation, acts that should bring about change
evaluation: feedback from clients, symptom reduction?
communication: consultation, research, teaching, training
clinical methods of assessment
clinical interview: one to one with client or carer
psychometrics: questionnaires, neuropsychological tests
self monitoring: diary and record forms to understand daily experiences
observation: observe behaviours and social interactions, completed by psychologist or teacher/carer
PioPsychoSocial model
- how different aspects influence illness
- interconnection between biology, psychology and socio-environmental factors
- biology: genetics, neurology, physiology
- psychology: emotion, thoughts, memory
- social factors: relationships, family, culture, society
cognitive formulation of panic
- trigger stimulation
- perceived threat
- apprehension
- body sensations
- interpretation of sensations as catstrophic
models of practice and training
scientist practitioner: training emphasis on scientific knowledge, research, critical skills
reflective practitioner: ability to reflect on work n themselves, how own personality and history affects practice
reflective practice
maintaining awareness of biases, what may influence application or professional knowledge, skills, experience eg cog bias
supervision, consultation and personal therapy to extend knowledge of self in practice
characteristics of depression
feeling saddness, hopelessness, dejection, anhedonia
motivational deficits: lack ambition
behavioural symptoms: appetite change
physical symptoms: sleep disturbance, wieght change
cognitive features: negative thoughts, low self esteem
onset of depression
episodes following significant life events or series day to day difficulties
can be due to no reasons
risk factors: early adversity, family or personal history, economic and educational disadvantage, negative life events, low levels of close social support
assessment od depression
questionnaire: Beck depression inventory, patient health questionnaire
clinical interview: understand difficulties, experiences, symptoms severity
depressive disorders
characterised by extended periods of clinical depression, cause distress to individual and impairment in social functioning
example of depressive disorders
persistent depressive disorder:mild symptoms over long periods of time
premenstrual dysphoric disorder:symptoms surface in time with period
disruptive mood dysregulation disorder
bipolar disorder: pattern of depressed and manic moods
biological theories of depression
genetic factors-twin concordance rates, 46% fro monozygotic and 20% dizygotic
structural and functional brain differences-lower level brain activation in areas associated with emotional regulation
neurochemical factors-lower levels of seratonin dopamine and norodrenaline
treating depression
drugs can alleviate symptoms
tricyclic drugs, monoamine oxidase inhibitors
psychological theories of depression
psychodynamic: result of unconscious process that unfolds and responds to loss
cognitive: not what happens but the view we take of it, maintained by negative schemas and negative triad
behavioural: results from lack of reinforcement from pleasurable or meaningful activities
attachment: early relationships with carers pave way to patterns of relationships may be depressogenic
systematic: individuals experiences cant be understood in isolation, depression is result of wider system
negative triad
self - biased, unrealistic view of worthlessness
world - unkind
future - hopeless
individual is left vulnerable to activation of mood congruent thoughts and feelings characteristic of depressoin
depression interventions
medication physical exercise psychological therapies and self help -2:1 preference for therapy over drugs choice dependent on nature of problem and training of clinician
cognitive behavioural therapy
work with client to identify and evaluate unhelpful thoughts/beliefs
diary of significant events associated with mood change
6-8 sessions for mild-moderate problems
16-24 sessions for severe to complex problems
behavioural activation
activity scheduling to help re-engage with pleasurable and meaningful activities to reinforce positivity
behavioural couple therapy
relationships where one or both has depression
improve communication, problem solving, promote acceptance
interpersonal psychotherapy
brief attachment focused therapy
grief and loss
changes in relationships
short term psychodynamic therapy
bring unconscious to conscious to understand psychic conflict
improve self knowledge on problems
counselling
relationship between client and therapist
talking therapy to help deal with emotions
couples, family and systematic approaches
problem is in system not the individual
focus on relationship dynamics, communication, conflict and functioning
mindfulness based cognitive therapy
preventing relapse
evaluating own work
for the individual:session by session to see if works
for service:numbers successfully treated, worldwide works
treatment effectiveness
majority of people can get over or learn to deal with depression if help is gotten early on
CBT has largest evidence base for helping
CBT as effective as anti depressants
whats a specifc phobia
excessive fear of specific and identifiable object or situation eg claustrophobia
can acquire a fear about anything
ICD-10 criteria for specifc fear
A-either 1) marked fear of object/situation not included in social or agora phobia or 2)marked avoidance of object/situation
B-atleast 2 symptoms of anxiety at same time
C-significant emotional distress and recognition they are unavoidable
D-symptoms restricted to feared object/situation or when thinking of it
what are symptoms of anxiety
autonomic arousal symptoms
symptoms concerning chest
symptoms concerning head
general symptoms
specific phobia sub divisions
animal type nature forces type blood, injection, injury type situational type other type
diagnostic controversies for specific phobias
quick method to decide where to focus treatment
useful way for researchers to describe participants clearly and reliably
reduce complex individuals into simple label
criteria is vague, what constitutes as unreasonable
prevalence of specific phobias
18% adults
ford 1999-1%children have one
fears are natural part of growing up
gender bias-25% women, 18% men due to reporting bias
fear in childhood
normal to experience fears not phobias
during infancy, fear stimuli in immediate environment eg noise
age 4-8 start to fear ghost and animals
pre adolescence fear physical injury
early adolescence fear social situation and criticism
phobias in children diagnosed with care only if real impairment is shown
how phobias acquired
heritability/genetics-25-45% phobias, gene environment interaction
prenatal stress
Mowrers two stage phobia theory
1-person learn to associate stimulus with aversive outcome, lead to fear response
2-person learns to avoid stimulus to reduce ear, relief felt leads to further avoidance
Rachmans 3 pathways to fear acquisition
1-direct conditioning or experience
2-learning through observation of others
3-transmission of fearful information
nature/nurture acquisition of phobia
shy child leads to overprotective parent
shy child becomes even more anxious
preparedness therapy
more genetically predisposed to acquire fears than others
born with tendency to learn to fear stimuli dangerous to ancestors
if fear stimulus likely to avoid it and survive and pass on ‘fear’ gene
more likely to learn phobia to fear relevant stimuli after experience
cognitive model of phobias
assume cognitive biases drive phobias and cause fear response, treat cognition then behaviour disappear
phobia come from thoughts? thoughts come from phobia?
phobia develop in children lacking language
phobias are learnt independently from cognition, cognition maintains fear
treating specific phobias
baseline assessment of clients difficulties
formulation of clients difficulties
establish goals of therapy
intervention
successfulness of cognitive therapy
improvements in relationships
improvements in confidence
cognitive therapy not changed since 1990s as effective
ICD-10 for oppositional defiant disorder
A-doesn’t meet criteria fro dissocial personality disorder, schizo, mania, depression, pervasive developmental disorder or hyper kinetic disorder
B-presence of four or more symptoms from criterion list, no more than 2 from severe
C-symptoms in B must be maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental level
D-atleast four symptoms must be present for atleast 6 months
ICD-10 for conduct disorder
A-doesnt meet criteria fro dissocial personality disorder, schizo,mania,depression,pervasive developmental disorder or hyperkinetic disorder
B-presence of 3 or more symptoms from severe
C-atleast one of symptoms from symptoms 9-24 present for 6 months
prevalence of conduct disorder
large british study, 6.5% boys, 2.7% girls
adolescents: 8.6% boys, 3.8% girls
conduct disorder more likely in adolescents, more likely in boys than girls
outcomes of having conduct disorder
leave school, no qualifications, no job, poor relationships with friends/family, more likely involved in crime, more likely commit suicide
what causes behavioural problems
genes: version 7 of DRD4 gene, genetically wired to be more sensitive to environment and parenting
IF good upbringing more likely to be kind
IF bad upbringing more likely to have conduct disorder
environment: prenatal stress, poverty major risk factor, cant be changed, research focused on parenting
do parents cause behavioural problems
Yes if parents: less likely use praise to encourage good behaviour, less sensible rules enforced, more attention given to bad behaviour, use harsher more frequent punishments
no because: research underpowered, flawed, cross sectional
Patterson’s coersive cycle
parent gives command child refuses parent shouts/smacks child has tantrum or complies parent gives up or parent carries on child learn tantrum works or parent learns shouting works
treatments for conduct disorder
national institute for clinical excellence
3-14 year olds, parents offered intervention
9-14 year olds, children offered group based course on managing emotions and behaviours
parent skills training
run in group format by two leaders
1.5-2 hours a week for 8-12 weeks
different versions: triple P, Webster stratton, mellow parenting
core elements: relationship building play-10mins commentating on what childs doing
:positive reinforcement of good behaviour-praise with good tone
:setting limits-number of commands given at once
:planned ignoring-role play, ignoring outbursts of behaviour
:consequences-not too harsh and quick
myths of psychosis
its a split personality disorder
linked to violence
chronic and remitting
clinical symptoms of psychosis
positive symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganised thinking
negative symptoms
delusions
experienced by 75% of those hospitalised
main types: delusion of persecution, delusion of grandeur, delusion of control, delusion of reference
hallucinations
auditory hallucinations-70% of psychotics
taste or smell hallucinations
associated with reality monitoring deficits or self monitoring deficits
non psychotic populations; 4-25% hallucinate due to grief, sleep deprivation, hypnopompic/hynogogic
disorganised thinking and speech
features of thinking: derailment, loose association, tangenital
features of speech: clanging, neologisms, word salads, poverty of content
disordered thinking inferred from speech
negative symptoms
affective flattening: immobile or unresponsive facial expression and poor eye contact
avolition: severe lack of initiativve to accomplish purposeful tasks
alogia: poverty of speech
anhedonia: inability to feel pleasure in normally pleasurable activities
associality: lack motivation to engage in social interaction
schizophrenia diagnosis and history
symptoms of psychosis reported throughout history
viewed differently in different cultures: mental helath problem or religious experience or possession by evil spirits
Emil Kraeplin-dementia paecox
eugen bleuler: shiz:split phren: the mind, splitting of psychological functions within mind
psychosis and need for care
concept of need for care not abnormality
determined by symptom severity, impact on life and function, patient approach to coping with symptoms
Psychosis diagnostic systems
ICD-10 schizophrenia, schizotypal, delusional disorders
DSM-V schizophrenia spectrum and psychotic disorders
both reference positive and negative symptoms that are persistent and not drug related
problematic categorisation psychotic experiences eg bipolar
Dimensional approach to psychosis
behavioural expression: affective, psychosis, negative, cognitive environmental factors influence heritability mental health developmental impairment
structure of paranoia Freeman 2005
strangers/friends look at me critically-48% negative comments circulating-42% deliberately try irritate me-27% being observed/followed-19% under threat from others-10% possibility of conspiracy-5%
concept of prodrome in psychosis
at the far end of continuum common symptoms: -reduced concentration/attention -depressed mood -deterioration in role functioning -sleep disturbance -anxiety -social withdrawal -suspiciousness -irritability
prevalence of schizophrenia
- lifetime prevalence of 0.3-0.66%, 2.3% if schizo spectrum considered
- earlier onset for men (18) and women (25)
- shorter life span due to diet, weight, smoking
- 5-10% individuals commit suicide
Aetiology of psychosis
overarching approach to diathesis stress
most theories attempt to explain scientific aspects of symptomology not whole picture
biological theories:genetic/biochemical
psychological theories:cognitive/behavioural
sociocultural theories: socail/familial
alternative understandings of experiences
genetic factors of psychosis
inherited component 50-80%
concordance rates in monozygotic twins 44.3% compared to 7.3% in siblings
not likely to be single gene
biochemical factors of psychosis
dopamine hypothesis: increased levels in brain, drugs alleviate psychotic symptoms by blocking receptor sites, MRI scans suggest sufferers exhibit more dopamine receptors
amphetamine triggers psychotic symptoms
cognitive theories of psychosis
- cognitive deficit in self monitoring
- cognitive bias in attention; not processing important stimuli or inability to ignore irrelevent stimuli
- cognitive bias in attribution; abnormal biases = error in behaviour interpretation
- persecutory delusions; from life events eg bullying leads to negative beliefs of oneself, and others are a threat
developmental/social theories of psychosis
- sociogenic; individuals in low socieconomic classses experience more stressors which associate with crime, poverty, can induce symptoms
- downward drift;experience symptoms they pushed to bottom of social ladder due to impairment
- social selection; display symptoms move into lower socioeconmoic classes
- social labelling; development and maintanence of symptoms influenced by diagnosis itself
familial theories of psychosis
- communication deviance; if family member talks in way that puzzles listener so much they cant share attention with speaker, induce psychotic symptoms in listener
- expressed emotion; critical or hostile environments lead to relapse of psychotic symptoms
COM-B model (Michie 2011)
‘capability’, ‘opportunity’, ‘motivation’ and ‘behaviour’
capability -> motivation behaviour
behaviour is interacting system of all these behaviours
What is health
State of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity (WHO 1948)
Lay conceptions of health
Absence of disease (objective signs)
Absence of illness (subjective signs)
Functional fitness
Biomedical approach to health
Focus on physical processes of disease
Pathology, biochemistry, physiology
Pathogenic stimulus —> physiological/bio-chemical mechanisms—>disease state —> treatment —> recovery or death or chronic illness
Limitation of biomedical approach
Only focuses on physical condition of body
Not reflective of WHO definition
Not consider role of society in cause or treatment
Not consider social factors influence access medical care
Not consider psychosocial benefits of some preventive activities
Dying from CVD increased to 41% as medical approach not reduce it
Biopsychosocial model of health
Looks at how psychological and social factors involved with disease prevention
Psychological consists of behavioural and cognitive factors
Social factors have direct effects on psychological and biological factors and vice versa
All factors interact with one another
Psychological influence on health
Behavioural factors: health protective behaviours (diet/exercise), screening behaviours (dental checks, cervical screening), health risk factors (smoking, alcohol, drugs), self management (vaccinations)
Four key health protective behaviours:non smoker, eat 5 a day, moderate alcohol, physically active
Khaw 2008 reduced risk of premature death if engage in health protective behaviour
Important of the mind in health
Personality: more “conscientious” lead to lower risk of premature death, optimists less likely experience same stimuli as painful-important for chronic pain
Pain and pleasure: feeling of stimulus depends on expectation, distraction reduces perception of pain
Alcohol outcome expectancies: significant part of effects due to expectancy not the actual alcohol, if think drinking alcohol will experience memory loss if they associate alcohol and memory loss
Placebo and notebook effects
Placebo: inert “treatment”, effect Is measurable, observable, study shown 50% people experience placebo effects (get better without treatment)
Nocebo: inert substance produces symptoms congruent with anticipated harm
Psychoneuroimmunology/psychoneuroendocrinology
Loneliness/pessimism/depression impair immune systems
Positive moods enhance immune system
Prolonged stress impairs immune systems
Stress depends on perceptions of situations
Perception depends on social support, more social support less likely to get stressed
TPB model (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980)
theory planned behaviour
- Intention to change influence by:attitudes, subject norms, behavioural control
- Behaviour change
- Implementation intention: how you do it, skills needed
Limitations of change behaviour models
Probabilistic: can’t explain exceptions, reductionist; assumes can be converted to numerical value, can’t deal with ambivalence
Individualistic: okay for health behaviours but not behaviours determin by others
Better at explaining efforts to start change rather than maintaining it
Psychosocial influence on health
Social influences p:social support, social policy, provision of resources
Direct effects:positive mood, positive influence on immune function and endocrine
Indirect effects: social support, social relationships
Lifestyle, environmental and psychosocial factors influencing health
Lifestyle: decreased use tobacco/drugs, regular physical activity, positive mental health, safe sexual activity
Environmental: safe physical environment, meaningful environment, affordable housing, restricted access to drugs/Tobacco, supportive economic/social conditions
Psychosocial:control over decisions, supportive family structure, strong social network, feeling of trust, self esteem
Implications fo biopsychosocial model
Holistic approach
Illness-wellness model
For effective treatment need to know symptoms, the disease, patients beliefs, psychosocial circumstances and family history
Responsibility placed on society and individual
Strengths and weakness of biopsychosocial model
Treats whole person
Acknowledgment of biographical and psychological factors
Recognise social influence
Improvement on biomedical model if its used
Focus on individual distracts from social responsibility for health
Little acknowledgment of cultural factors
Facts and Figures on coronary heart disease
10% CHD avoided if all sedentary people became moderately active (Britton and McPherson 2012)
CHD deaths declined due to improvement in surgery and medication, gains from behavioural change will be 4 times greater
Examples of behaviour change techniques
Individual; motivational interviewing, semi directive, client centred counselling style, resolve ambivalence, goals setting, enhancing motivation to imitate and maintain change, NHS SMOKING SERVICES: one to one, peer support groups
Population/culture: wide periodic behaviour change eg dry jan, individual conduct behavioural experiment, experience benefits of behaviour change, allowed to develop skills, enhance motivation, encourage people to discuss behaviour and role of it in society
Healthy behaviour promotion
Promotions and evaluation of healthy life style programmes: health protective behaviours, health risk behaviours
Early identification of people at higher risk: screening, self examination
Legislation action/government initiatives: smoke free public areas, product labelling
Positive feedback loop: change at macro level results in changes on a social or individual level
Psychological models of health psychology
Based on what’s seen as healthy/unhealthy
Models suggest factors to be focused on during interventions
IMB-information motivation behavioural skills model
HBM-health belief model
TPB-theory planned behaviour
TTM-trans theoretical model
Interventions based on attitude/beliefs are effective
Interventions based on skills and motivation more effective
IMB model (Fisher 1994)
If want behaviour to change must be informed of how current behaviour is detrimental
Once have information, must have a motivator
Better motivators are what’s more important to individual
Behavioural skills required in order to carry out changes
HBM model (Rosenstock 1974)
Perceived severity Perceived susceptibility Perceived cost Perceived benefits Self efficacy Cues to action Emphasis on motivation and information
biases in information processing
-encoding and interpretation of cues: anxiety disorders hypervigilance to threat, overinterpreation of threat
conduct problems hostile attribution bias
-involves influence of emotion laden schemata about social world
-response access and selection:
anxiety avoidant response to ambiguous situation
conduct aggressive response to peer provocation
Dual process model
Reflective precursors: reasoned action, planned behaviour, health beliefs, restraint standards
Impulsive precursors: automatic affective reactions, automatic approach-avoidance reactions
Boundary conditions: habitualness, ego depletion mood, cognitive overload, working memory capacity
All lead to health related behaviours
process outcome research - classroom management
identify how teacher behaviour influences student achievement
class room visits over period of time, calc frequencies of teacher behaviour, and identify student achievements on standardised tests at end of year
Brophy: effective classroom management skills promote engaged time, lack of direct instruction is problematic
successful classroom management techniques: evaluate connections with disruptive behaviour and achievement, early prep and foundation work from first day
behaviourist approach: rewards and punishment, group consequence, token reinforcement, contingency contract
Transtheoretical stages of change (prochaska 1997)
Pre-contemplation Contemplation Preparation Action Maintenance Relapse:occurs after action, leads back to contemplation or preparation
Changing unhealthy behaviours
Identify important cognitive and affective factors
Develop rerouted skills for initiation and maintenance
Maintain motivation: information, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, benefits, barriers, attitudes, normative beliefs, self efficacy
Cues to action
Behavioural skills
Managing relapse
Legislation
Infrastructure/resources
Piaget and Child
child is active agent who constructed their understanding of the world
qualitatively different stages of cognitive development; children do not think the same at 10 as did at 5
related to social and moral development
implications of learning
no theory of instruction or of development within academic curriculum
aware of childs satge of development
child as active agent; discovery learning
notion of growth through cognitive conflict
peer interaction stimulate cognitive conflict
plowden report 1967
for children an dteachers, focus on primary education
‘at heart of educational process lies child’
‘mental stages follow in sequence…may be advanced or delayed, but not altered’
learning through play
‘play-messing about wiht material objects or with other children and creating fantasies-is vital to child’s learning’ plowden report
characteristics: chosen by child, enjoyable, active engagement by child
forms of play: solitary, onlooker, parallel,associative, co-operative
three prime areas of learning: communication and language, physical development, personal, social, emotional development
play prompts problem solving
sylva 1977: children seated in chair, given two sticks, have to reach object, group 1 played with problem solving materials before, group 2 observed experimenter do it, group 3 is control, group 1&2 more motivated than 3
can involve fantasy and enactment of real social roles
strongly associated with theory of mind development
implications of pretend play
socio cognitive skills have reciprocal links with peer relations
how do children make sense of situations: 5 year olds understand taht someone can say something and upset someone, but not understand it can be by accident
early peer rejection inhibits development of social understanding (7-9)
impaired social understanding predicts subsequent rejections (10-11)
social understanding/theory of mind
externalising and internalising characteristics may be associated with difficulties or biases on more advanced social understanding
- Happe & Frith: children with conduct disorder rated s significantly poorer on social skills requiring insight into others mental states
- Banerjess & henderson: socially anxious chidren rated as poorer on social skills requiring insight into others mental states, poorer on some advanced social understanding tasks
prevention and intervention of bullying
- direct sanctions vs restorative approach
- whole school appraoch: PSHE, social and emotional learning programe, parent/carer involvement, adult modelling
- peer support schemes: uddy schemes, circle of friends, peer mediation, peer mentoring, cybermentoring
- “not all interventions are effective in every situation and for everyone” Salmivalli
integrate levels of explanation
- direct links between social experience and psychopathology
- more intrusive, overprotective parenting lead to anxious children
- temperament moderates the link between social experience and alter psychopathology
- peer rejection and parenting influences more significant predictors of conduct disorders among children showing early difficult temperament
- social information processing mediates relationship between social experience and psychopathology
goals of classroom management
- create environment for learning
- maximise academic learning (allocated vs engaged)
- Weistein & Mignano: 1100 hours in total in school year, 1000 hours attended, 500 hours allocated, 400 hours engaged, 375 hours learning
measurement approaches to bullying
various techniques, with advantage and disadvantage
- teacher and parent reports
- self reports by pupils
- peer nomination by pupils
- direct observation
- interviews
- prevalence variesa corss studies: type of bulling, methods used, gender, age, culture
bullies: social skill deficits
research on social information processing characteristics of aggressive children
Sutton 1999:
-193 children aged 7-10
-participant role scale (nominations for 21 items to identify bully, assistant, reinforcer, defender, outsider, victim)
-cognitive and emotion theory of mind stories
-bully status associated with better performance on social cognition stories
-victim status associated with poorer performance on social cognition stories
importance of classroom management
NUT report on obstacles in learning: poor pupil behaviour and large class sizes
early victimisation
crick 1999:
-129 children aged 3-5
-tecaher rated peer victimisation (relational-left out group, physical-shoved)
-girls significantly more relationally victimised, boys significantly more physically victimised
kochenderfer & Ladd:
-longitudinal anlaysis of 200 5year olds
-autumn and spring, 4 item self report of (picked on, hit you, mena things to you, mean things about you)
-20% report victimisation at each timepoint
-autumn victimisation predicted increase in loneliness and school avoidance
approaches to classroom management
authoritarian vs democratic
behavioural vs counselling
gain compliance vs building community
special educational needs and disability
- if have learning difficulty or disability which requires special educational provision
- if significantly greater difficutly in learning than majority of others of same age
- disability prevents or hinders from making use of facilities provided for others of same age
- areas of need: communication and interaction, cognition and learning, social/emotional/mental health difficulties, sensory/physical needs
graduated response to SEND
previously: school action (existing resources), school action plus (external services), statutory assessment
now: four part cycle-assess, plan, do, review, education, health and care plan for those with complex needs
waves of intervention SEND
universal provision
additional support
intensive individual support
individual education plan to record needs, targets, interventions and progress
role of educational psychologists SEND
individual standardised assessment of pupils learning difficulties
consultation with teachers about support provided
development of authority wide approach to bullying
crucial bridge between academic research, practice across educational settings
inclusion
‘not about placing all disabled children and children with SEND in either mainstream schools or special schools…inclusion is the process focused on fulfilling each child’s entitlement to high quality education’ NUT
stinson 1996 inclusion
220 hearing impaired 16- 18- year olds with varying degrees of integration into mainstream classes
quantity of interaction: adolescents reported more school participation with HI than H peers, reversed among those in most mainstreamed classes
subjective experience: students frequently in mainstream classes more likely to report emotional security with HI than H peers
social information processing
Crick andDodge
account for various differences in social adjustment
encoding cues -> interpretation of cues -> clarification of goals -> response access or construction -> response decision -> behavioural enactment -> peer evaluation and response or back to encoding
what is bullying
Olweus: imbalance in strength, assymetric power relationship; intentional aggressive behaviour/harm doing; carried out repeatedly and over time
- indirect and direct forms
- cyberbullying via mobile phone and internet
bullies: motivational factors
goals play important role in children’s response to social situation
- status goals (Sijtsema 2009)
- distinctions between goals focused on assertiveness vs submissiveness, concerns about others, concerns about relationships
older children victimisation
- preadolescent boys victimisation associated with perceived maternal overprotectiveness
- pre adolescent girls victimisation associated with perceived maternal rejection
victimisation and friendship
- friendship prevents against ‘escalating cycle of peer victimisation’
- 393 children aged 10 in longitudinal study
- having reciprocated bestfriendship predicted decrease in victimisation
- externalising and internalising characteristics increases victimisation IF no reciprocated bestfriendship
peer involvement and bullying
-self report, peer nomination, teacher nomination to identy focial primary school children: bully, victims, comparisons
-120 hours playground behaviour over 3 years
-185 bullying episodes, 99 peer group
-active reinforcement by joining in 20%
passive reinforcement by watching 54%
-intervention to support victim 25%
broader school context of bullying
ofsted 2012 report: no pace for bullying
major emphasis on school culture and ethos, fostering of empathy and collective responsability in pupils and staff
applying psychology into work place
- recruitment and selection: fairness, measurement
- motivation and commitment@ job design, needs expectations, stress and work life balance
- team processes
- leadership
- organisational chnage
- diversity
social identity theory
- personal and social identity fundamentally distinct aspects of person self-concept
- personal identity is perception of self as unique individual
- social identity is part of individuals self concept which derives from knowledge of membership of social group together with value and emotional significance attached to membership
- context determines whether personal or social identity and which social identity
how social identity theory works (cognitive)
perceptual process of structuring and simplification: divide world into social categories and define ourselves in terms of our social identity
-social categorisation accentuates: similarities and differences between
how social identity theory works (motivational)
-process through which categories acquire clarity and meaning
-people are motivated to achieve positive social identity
achieved by making social comparisons between groups
-comparisons motivate to seek out positively valued distinctions between groups
-social competition: each group seeks to be better than others
self categorisation theory
personal and social identity represent different levels of self-categorisation
depersonalisation: moving from personal identity to social identity
- at social level, see self/others in terms of shared ingroup traits, self-stereotype and adhere to group norms
- many social identities will be adopted depending on situations
applying social identity theory at work
team level: -team identity -team norms -team commitment department level: -leadership -inter-team competition -superordinate identity
theories of individual motivation
maslow hierarchy of needs
- self-actualisation
- esteem
- lobe
- safety
- physiological
social aspects of motivation
ignoring social dimension of motivation
-when people committed to something, thy tend to adopt it as their own and will ensure that they succeed without need for continual supervisions or checking by others
advantage of teams
- general movement towards flatter organisational structures, wider spans of control, reducing layers of middle management and increasing empowerment of employees places greater emphasis on importance of effective teamwork
- team working seen to be crucial to organisations efforts to perform better, faster and more profitably than competitors
potential disadvantages of teams
process losses: conflict: failure to coordinate effectively
social loafing: diffusion responsibility
groupthink
stronger social identification
- more commitment
- lower absenteeism
- job satisfaction
- better performance
- lower turnover intention
- higher organisational identification was sig predictor of sales achievement
enhancing team identity
-provide social support
-encourage organisational citizenship behaviours
-improve job satisfaction, motivations and commitment
improve team performance
-self-management teams out perform leader led teams
possible downsides of strong identification
-norms can sometimes encourage sub-optimal performance: fear of breaking -ranks/social censure
stronger susceptibility to negative social influence
-resistance to criticism /defensiveness: team pride may hinder objective evaluation
-black sheep effect: less access to help/support for struggling team members
centre for team excellence
- team building
- members of high performing teams behave, think and feel differently to people in ordinary teams
- undergo psychological shift that makes success of team important ingredient in their sense of who they are: source of pride, passion and performance
- teamship creates levels of trust, collaboration and commitment and its the lifeblood of exceptional performance in teams
SIT and leadership
social self-categorisation is pre-condition of social influence
leaders must be seen as part of group if they are to have an influence
members who most strongly embody norms of group will have more power to influence
informational influence: referent power
normative influence: positive expectations
intergroup comparison
healthy competition: inject meaning/motivation into work environments where these are lacking
incentives need to be attractive
used to promote unity and cohesion within teams
backfires:
competition may impede innovation by discouraging dissent, competition is unhelpful in work contexts where teams must coordinate/cooperate with each other
scheins iceberg model
artefacts: tangible manifestations of culture
values: ethical statements of rightness
basic assumptions: unconscious and taken fro granted ways of seeing world
scheins 3 levels of culture
surface manifestations: artefacts- language, slogans, rituals (office layout)
values: underpin surface manifestations
basic assumptions: invisible, taken for granted understandings about organisation and how it functions
resistance to change
action taken by individuals or groups when they perceive that a change thats occurring as a threat to them
threat may not be real or large but resistance still occur
individual resistance to change
selective perception habit inconvenience loss of freedom economic implications security in past fear of unknown self-interest eg loss of power
mergers
potential threat to group distinctiveness
- hostility and resistance, discrimination against outgroup, low identification with new organisation and reassertion of ingroup identity
- stronger post-merger identification -> less conflict
- super ordinate identity or dual approach helps
- relative status and size of merging units is important
SIT and diversity management
target team norms
tricky to accept alternative viewpoints without prejudice
need to challenge expectations
conflict management issues
need to value diversity for benefit of team/organisation
-create atmosphere in which group members ca express views without fear or rejection
