Psychopathology: Key Terms Flashcards
Statistical Infrequency
- we define many aspects of what is normal by referring to typical values
- if we can define what is most common or normal with statistics then we also have an idea of what is not common
- abnormality identified as any value thats two standard deviation points away from mean on a normal distribution
Deviation From Social Norms
- in any society there are standards of acceptable behaviour
- anyone who deviates from these sociallly created norms is classed as abnormal
- some are implicit and some are policed by laws
Failure to Function Adequately
- judged in terms of not being able to cope with everyday living
- not functioning adequately causes distress and suffering for the individual and/or others
- if it doesn’t cause distress to self or others then a judgement of abnormailty is innappropriate
- the abnormal behvaiour being shown is often maladaptive, irrational or dangerous
- criteria: understanding and communicating, getting around, self care, getting along with people, life activities and participation in society
Deviation From Ideal Mental Health
- Marie Jahoda suggested we should look for absence signs of mental health like we do for physical illnesses
- she identified six categories/characteristics that enable an individual to feel happy (free of distress) and behave competently
- absence of these criteria indicates abnormality
- criteria: self-attitudes, personal growth and self actualisation, integration, autonomy, accurate perception of reality, mastery of the environment
Phobias
- a group of mental disorders characterised by high levels of irrational fearful anxiety in response to a particular stimulus or group of stimuli
- the anxiety interferes with normal living
- the irrational fear produces a conscious avoidance of the stimulus
Unipolar Depression
also known as major depression, characterised by clinical symptoms usually in cycles, up to 25% of women will suffer and 12% of men
Bipolar Depression
also known as manic depression, characterised by mixed episodes of mania and depression, up to 2% will suffer
The Two Process Model (Mowrer, 1947)
- suggests that all phobias are learnt from environment
- classical and operant conditioning are able to explain existence of phobias
- classical explains aquisition of phobia
- operant explains maintenance of phobia
Systematic Desensitisation
counterconditioning:
- patient is taught a new association that runs counter to the original association
- taught through classical conditioning to associate phobic stimulus with new response
relaxation:
- achieved by patient focusing on their breathing and taking slow, deep breaths
- being mindful of here and now
- progressive muscle relaxation is also used where one muscle at a time is relaxed
- relaxation inhibtion: relxation inhibits the anxiety as you can’t be both scared and relaxed at the same time
Desensitisation hierachy:
- gradually introducing person to feared situation one step at a time
- at each stage patient practises relaxation so anxiety diminishes as it becomes more familiar + less overwhelming
- each stage is practiced until fear is extinguished
Flooding
- immediate exposure to feared stimulus
- patients are prevented from avoiding the phobic stimulus
- relaxation techniques are practised and new stimulus
- anxiety eventually subsides as adrenaline levels naturally start to decrease (1-3 hours)
- this is practiced until the fear is extinguished as the patient will remain calm around the phobic stimulus
- this can be done in vivo (real life) or in vitro ( virtual reality)
Effectiveness
a treatment is effective if it alleviayes the symptoms of the diorder it is trying to treat
Appropriateness
a treatment is appropriate if it is effective, efficient, and ethical; and if the xpected benefits outweigh the expected costs
Beck’s Negatuve Triad
- 3 negative self schemas acquired during childhood: negative view of self, future and world
- depression is caused by faulty informational processing and irrational thinking
- these negative schemas are activated whenever a new situation is encountered
- cognitive distortions: contribute to negative emotions, fuel catastrophising
- all or nothing thinking, over generalisation, mental filter, discounting the positive, fortune telling, magnification and minimisation, emotional reasoning, should statments, self labelling, personalisation and blame
Ellis’ ABC Model
- proposed that depression is due to irrational thinking and that the source of this is mustabatory thinking: the thinking that certain ideas or beliefs must be true in order to be happy
- A: activating event, B: beliefs, C: consequences
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
- general aim is to change negative schemas and irrational thoughts
- cognitive and behavioural element
- reality testing of beliefs encourages reflection on patient behaviour so they can recognise their own faulty cognitions
Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
- identify automatic thoughts about the three negative schemas
- ‘patient as scientist’ - generate hypotheses to test validity of irrational thought which will be challenged directly with the therapist
- reality testing is done for homework allowing them to question the negativ beliefs and prove them incorrect
Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT) (Ellis, 1962)
- type of CBT based on ABC model extended to ABCDEF
- most important is D: disputing and challenging irrational beliefs
- 3 types of disputing: logical (does this make sense?), empirical (where is the proof?), pragmatic (is this useful?)
The COMT Gene
- regulates production of dopamine in synapse
- involved in reward, motivation + motor control
- form that is common with OCD is low level activity which results in higher levels of dopamine
The SERT Gene
- regulates transport of serotonin in synapse
- involved in feelings of well being and happiness
- form of gene that is common with OCD is high level activity which results in lower levels of serotonin because reuptake mechanism works too hard
The Worry Circuit: The Frontal Lobe
- people with OCD tend to have high levels of activity in orbital frontal cortex (OFC)
- OFC sends ‘worry’ signals to thalamus which is alerted and confirms ‘worry’ back to OFC
- in neurotypical brain ‘worry’ signal is suppressed by the caudate nucleus however in atypical brain cuadate nuleus is impaired allowing neural activity
- caudate nucleus’ inability to filter small worries results in worry circuit being overreactive
Role of Serotonin on Neuroanatomy
- plays key role in operation of OFC and caudate nucleus
- abnormally low levels of serotonin might cause this area to malfunction
Role of Dopamine on Neuroanatomy
- main neurotransmitter of basal ganglia
- high levels of dapamine leads to overactivity in this region
- this is associated with OCD
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
- Antidepressant drugs increase serotonin levels at synapses in the ‘worry circuit’ to help with reducing the anxiety associated with the obsessions in OCD.
- SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin at the presynaptic membrane, increasing serotonin concentration at receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane.
Tricyclic Antidepressants
- These were the first antidepressants used for OCD and now they are used more for OCD than depression.
- Tricyclics block the transporter mechanism that re-absorbs both serotonin and noradrenaline into the presynaptic cell after it has fired. As a result, more of the neurotransmitters are left in the synapse and their activity is prolonged.
Benzodiazepine Anxiolytics
- These drugs are known as anxiolytics, in that they reduce anxiety.
- These work by slowing down the activity of the CNS by enhancing the activity of the neurotransmitter GABA (which regulates excitement and has a general quieting effect on many neurons in the brain).
Phobias Behavioural Characteristics
- panic behaviour
- avoidance
- endurance
Phobias Emotional Characteristics
- anxiety
- fear
Phobias Cognitive Characteristics
- irrational thinking
- selective attentional bias
Depression Behavioural Characteristics
- neglecting personal hygiene
- self harm
- sleep pattern disturbance
- social impairment
- loss of energy
- weight changes
Depression Emotional Characteristics
- anger
- worthlessness
- constant depressed mood
- loss of enthuisiasm
Depression Cognitive Characteristics
- negative thoughts
- delusions
- poor memory
- reduced concentration
- suicidal ideation
OCD Behavioural Characteristics
- compulsions are repetitive
- hinder everyday functioning
- compulsions reduce anxiety
OCD Emotional Characteristics
- guilt + disgust
- distress
- co morbid with depression
- extreme anxiety
OCD Cognitive Characteristics
- realisation of inappropraiteness
- persistent + intrusive absessions
- hypervigilance
