Approaches: Key Terms + Points Flashcards
Classical Conditioning
learning a new behaviour via the process of association, 2 stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal
Timing
timing of pairing between the ns and ucs is important
Extinction
the association between the ucs and cs is not permanent
Spontaneous Recovery
once extinct if you repair the two stimuli the response is formed much faster
Generalisation
once animals have been conditioned they may respond to other stimuli that are similar to the cs
Positive Reinforcement
receiving a reward for a certain behaviour, increases likelihood of behaviour being repeated
Negative Reinforcement
doing a behaviour in order to avoid something unpleasant, increases likelihood of behaviour being repeated
Punishment
an unpleasant consequence of behaviour (finding a way to avoid this would be negative reinforcement), decreases likelihood of behaviour being repeated
Live Model
parent, teacher, friend etc
Symbolic Model
someone portrayed in media eg TV character
Imitation
- while conditioning is a slower process, when a model is provided behaviour patterns can be rapidly acquired and copied
- depend on: the characteristics of model, observers perceived ability to perform, observed consequences
Indentification
- refers to the extent to which an individual can relate to a model and feels that he/she is similar to that person
- observers must feel that they are similar enough to experience the same outcome
- peoplet are also more likely to imitate high status models, celebrities, and people who are perceived as physically attractive
Vicarious Reinforcement
- individuals learn about the likely consequence of an action by viewing the behaviour of a model
- individuals then adjust their later behaviour accordingly
Mediational Processes: Attention
- refers to learning of behaviour
- the extent to which we notice certain behaviours that capture our attention because they are intrinsically interesting unusual or we recognise them
Mediational Processes: Retention
- refers to learning of behaviour
- how well the behaviour is remembered if it is shocking it might strengthen long term memory or if it is simple it might be easy to encode and remember
Mediational Processes: Motor Reproduction
- refers to performance of behaviour
- the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour, for example if it is an easy behaviour to copy (this is based on self-efficacy, which is having the confidence to enact the behaviour)
Mediational Processes: Motivation
- refers to performance of behaviour
- this will or desire to perform the behaviour based on its previous success, this is often determined by whether it was rewarded or punished, often positive vicarious reinforcement can motivate the individual
Social Learning Theory
learning through observing others and imitating their behaviours, indirect as you are watching what happens as a result of someone elses behaviour
Cognitive Approach
- focused on how internal method processes (eg thoughts, perceptions, attention, memory etc) affect our behvaiour
- these processes mediate between stimulus and response
Inferences
cognitive psychologists cant observe these processes so they study them indirectly by making inferences/assumptions about what is going on in the peoples minds based on their behaviour
Internal Mental Process
operations of the mind that mediate between stimulus and response
Theoretical Model
represent certain mental processes in pictorial form
Computer Model
metaphor of computer often used to describe the mind
Schema
mental framework of beliefs + expectations that influence cogntitive processing
Cognitive Neuroscience
- the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
- aim to explore neurobiological bases of thought processes and disroders
- study neural processes underlying internal mental processes and also interested in social cognition, brain regions involved when interacting and how impairments may characterise psychological conditions
Brain Imaging Technology
- fMRI (functional magnetci resonance imaging) and PET (positron emission tomography) scans
- show what parts of the brain become active in specific circumstances
Biological Approach
behaviour affected by…
- genetics: genes influence behaviour and may be influenced by the process of evolution
- the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord): from a biological perspective, the mind lives in the brain; so all thoughts, feelings and behaviour have a biological basis
- the chemistry of the body: chemicals in the brain (neurotransmitters) and the body (hormones) are related to behaviour
Heredity
the passing of genes from one generation to the next
Genes
carry instructions for a particular characteristic
Behaviour Geneticists
study whether behavioural characteristics (eg intelligence) are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics (eg height)
Twin Studies
often used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing concordance rates (degree of similarity) between pairs of twins
Monozygotic Twins (MZ)
identical twins formed from one fertilised egg (zygote)
Dizygotic Twins (DZ)
non identical twins formed from two fertilised eggs (zygotes)
Genotype
- genetic make up of an individual
- occurs at conception and provides the genetic code for how an individual will develop
- each individual (apart from MZ twins) has a unique genotype
Phenotype
- product of what happens when the genotype interacts with the environment
- the physical or observable characteristics of an individual
Darwins Theory of Natural Selection
- any genetically determined behaviour that enhances and individuals survival (and reproduction) will continue in future generations
- individuals within a species differ from each other in terms of their physical characteristics and behaviour
- some of this variation is inherited
- this process takes place naturally, no one decides the selection occurs because some traits give the possessor certain advantages
Introspection
a person gaining knowledge about their mental states by examining their conscious thoughts and feelings
Determinsm
the idea that all events and behvaiours have causes
Empiricism
the belief that all knowledge should be gained via sensory experience
Objectivity
researchers don’t let preconceived ideas or biases influence collection of data
Systematic
research is carried out in an orderly (often standardised) way
Replicability
research can be repeated by others to determine whether same results are obtained, if not replicable then not relieable
The Birth of Psychology
- 1879
- Wundt established first psychological lab in Germany
- focus was moving psychology from philosophical roots to controlled roots
What did Wundt Believe? (3)
- all aspects of nature, including mind, could be studied scientifically
- behaviour has an ultimate cause (it’s determined)
- If behvaiour is determined it should be possible to predict how humans will behave in different conditions
Wilhelm Wundt’s Aim (1832-1920)
- aimed to study structure of mind through structuralism by breaking down behaviours into their separate component parts (thoughts, feelings, sensations + emotional reactions)
- used introspection to study the human experience
Wundt’s Role in Emergence of Psychology as a Science (4)
- published one of first books on psychology helping to establish subject as independent branch of science
- work paved the way for later controlled research + study of mental processes
- identified higher mental processes ( learning, language, emotions) that couldn’t be studied in strictly controlled manner
- work led to development of field of cultural psychology which is. based on general trends of behaviour in groups of people
The Iceberg Metaphor
- the conscious mind is the part of the mind we can access
- the preconsciours mind it ‘just below the surface’ and is made up of thoughts that may surface at any point into the conscious, many of our memories reside here
- the unconscious mind is inaccessible, traumatic + very unpleasant memories remain here + direct our behaviour
The Role of the Unconscious
- driving force behind our behaviour
- instincts + drives motivate our behaviour (such as libido which is sexual energy)
- early childhood experiences are pivotal in making us the person we are
- protects conscious self from the anxiety that comes from trauma
- traumatic childhood memories that are in the unconscious drive our behaviour
- defence mechanisms (repression, denial, displacement) are used unconsciously to reduce this anxiety
Freudian Slip
hidden unconscious desires coming to the surface, ego has failed to control id
Id
- driven by pleasure principle
- emphasis on instant gratification due to its selfish nature
only operates in unconscious - born with an id and this contains basic motivational forces, especilly innate sexual + aggressive instincts
- mostly caused by eros + thanatos drives
3 Parts of the Tripartite Structure of Personality
- id
- ego
- superego
Eros Drive
- life instinct
- deals with basic survival, pleasure + reproduction
- includes instincts such as sexual procreation, thirst, hunger + pain avoidance
- biological energy created by eros drive known as libido
Thanatos Drive
- death instinct
- produces aggressive + self-destructive behaviour + operates in opposition to sexual instinct
Ego
- driven by reality principle
- employs defence mechanisms to reduce conflict between id and superego
- develops around age 2
Superego
- based on morality principle
- represents moral standards of childs same sex parent, and societal rules
- punishes ego through guilt
- develops around age 5
The Dynamic of Personality
- freud saw 3 components of personality in an ongoing dynamic relationship: psycho-dynamic
- he believed a healthy adult had a strong ego which could mediate between instintual demands of the id and moral rules of the superego
- however if the id was dominant it would lead to a pleasure-seeking personality with little concern for moral rules
- if the superego was dominant the person would be ruled by feelings of guilt towards even socially-acceptable pleasures
3 Ego Defence Mechanisms
- repression
- denial
- displacement
Repression
- unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts + impulses
- repressed ideas nonetheless continue to influence + control behaviour
Denial
- refusal to accept reality
- acting as if a traumatic event had never happened
Displacement
- redirecting of hostile thoughts + feelings when a person feels unable to express them towards their true cause
- “taking it out” on a helpless victim or object
Psychosexual Stages + 5 Stages
- psychodynamic approach argues we have drives in our unconscious mind that dictate the stages we experience at various points of development
- the psychosexual stages of development are a series of stages everyone progresses through
- the underlying unconscious drive is sexual desire
- oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
Psychosexual Stages: Oral
- 0-1 years
- focus of pleasure is the mouth, the mother’s breast is the object of desire
- consequence of unresolved conflict: oral fixation eg smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical
Psychosexual Stages: Anal
- 1-3 years
- focus of pleasure is the anus
- child gains pleasure by withholding and expelling faeces
- consequence of unresolved conflict: anal retentive eg perfectionist, obsessive or anal expulsive eg thoughtless, messy
Psychosexual Stages: Phallic
- 3-5 years
- focus of pleasure is the genital area
- child experiences the oedipus or electra complex
- consequence of unresolved conflict: phallic personality eg narcissitic, reckless, and possibly homosexual
Psychosexual Stages: Latency
- earlier conflicts are repressed
Psychosexual Stages: Genital
- sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
- consequence of unresolved conflict: difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
The Oedipus Complex
- occurs in phallic stage
- boys develop incestuous sexual desire for their mother
- nurderous hatred for their father (who is a rival to the mothers affection)
- castration anxiety: a fear that their father will castrate them if they find out about these feelings
- boys repress their feelings for their mother
- boys identify with the father, taking on his gender role and moral values
The Electra Complex
- occurs in phallic stage
- girls develop “penis envy”- they desire their father and hate their mother
- girls give up their desire for the father and replace this with a desire for a baby
- displacement
Maslow’s Hierachy of Needs
- the bottom four levels were referred to as ‘deficiency needs’ by Maslow
- if these were not met Maslow believed we would experience this as having something important missing in our lives
- the top hierachy is referred to as the ‘being’ need
- Maslow believed that everyone has a desire for personal fulfilment, which he called ‘self-actualisation’
- self-actualisation is defined personally and can be pursued in many different ways
Carl Rogers
- an important element of his theory was the concept of self - it is model of who we are and what we are capable of
- we construct the self during childhood from two main sources: personal experiences and evaluations of other significant people
Unconditional Positive Regard
- if we experience a lack of unconditional positive regard (unconditional love) from our parents we are likely to have low self-esteem
- a parent or significant person who sets limits on their love for their child (conditions of worth) is storing up psychological problems for the child in the future
Congruence
- Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved, an individual’s concept of self, must be broadly equivalent to, or have congruence with, their ideal self (the person they want to be)
- if the gap between the two is too great the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible
Counselling Psychology
- in order to reduce the gap between people’s self-concept and ideal-self Rogers developed a ‘client centred’ therapy called person-centred counselling (PCC)
- Roger’s referred to those in therapy as ‘clients’ rather than ‘patients’ as he saw the individual as the expert on their own condition
- he believed that with counselling people would be able to solve their own problems in constructive ways
- Rogers argued that three ‘core’ conditions are essential for a therapeutic relationship between a therapist and client: empathetic understanding ( the therapist should enter the clients world as if it were their own), unconditional positive regard (acceptance of the client without conditions of worth), a congruent therapist ( a therapist who is in touch with their own feelings)
The Hierachy of Needs (lowest to highest)
- physiological (needed for survival)
- safety (physical + psychological)
- love/belonging (acceptance from family, friends, partners)
- esteem (the need to feel confident, respected)
- self-actualisation (becoming aware of all that we are capable of)
Humanistic Approach
- rejects a scientific model that attempts to establish general principles of human behaviour
- idiographic - believs that psychology should concern itself with study of subjective experience, as humans are active agents who are all unique
- person-centred approach
- although does aide with free will, acknowledges constraints on free will (social rules, laws + morals) that can restrict us
Comparing Approaches: Free Will vs Determinism
behaviourism & slt: environmental determinism
cognitive: soft determinism
biological: biological determinism
psychodynamic: psychic determinism
humanistic: free will
Comparing Approaches: Nature vs Nurture
behaviourism (interactions with environment) & slt (observing others): nurture
cognitive (innate factors or our own experiences) & psychodynamic (unconscious forces and upbringing) & humanistic (drive to self actualise and conditions of worth): both
biological (innate factors although can be modified by experience): nature
Comparing Approaches: Holism vs Reductionism
behaviourism & slt: environmental reductionist
cognitive: machine reductionist
biological: biological reductionist
psychodynamic: middle
humanistic: holism
Comparing Approaches: Idiographic vs Nomothetic
behaviourism & slt & biological: nomothetic
cognitive & psychodynamic & humanistic: both
Comparing Approaches: Scientific
behaviourism & slt & cognitive neuroscience & biological: yes
cognitive: middle but mostly yes
psychodynamic & humanisitic: no
Comparing Approaches: Explaining Mental Illness
behaviourism: cc/oc
slt: modelling behaviour from role model
cognitive: faulty thinking or schema
biological: neurotransmitters eg serotonin
psychodynamic: unresolved trauma or conflicts in the unconscious
humanistic: inability to self-actualise
Comparing Approaches: Treating Mental Illness
behaviourism: counter-conditioning
slt: modelling better behaviour, changing attention
cognitive: ABC model
biological: drug therapy
psychodynamic: psychotherapy
humanistic: client-centred therapy
