Issues + Debates: Key Terms + Points Flashcards
Gender Bias
- treating or representing men and women differently based on stereotypes rather than actual differences
- this distorts the view of what behaviours we might see as typical and atypical for each gender
- theory/research not justifiably representing the experience of men or women (usually women)
Universality
- the belief that all humans are alike so what is true for one person is true for everyone
- the aim is to develop theories that apply to all people, and that could include any real differences between genders or cultures
- the solution is to recognise differences but not the superiority of one gender or culture over another
Alpha Bias + Consequence
- research that exaggerates the difference between genders or cultures (usually making females or non-Western cultures seem inferior)
- the consequence of this is that it can lead to theories that devalue one gender or culture in comparison to another
Beta Bias + Consequence
- research that minimises the differences between genders or cultures and assume they are the same
- the consequence of this is that theories could ignore questions about the lives of women or people in non-Western cultures or assume that insights derived from studies of men or Western cultures will apply equally to women or non-Western cultures
Androcentrism + Consequence
- research that takes a male-centred view of the world
- ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard
- thus, female behaviour can be seen as ‘deficient’ in comparison
- any differences may be considered to have no value
- the consequence of this is that it can lead to alpha or beta bias in research
Culture Bias
- refers to when a norm or standard of behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of one culture
- as a result any differences that deviate from this standard will inevitably be seen as ‘abnormal’, ‘inferior’ or ‘unusual’
- this is usually in reference to the dominant culture being individualist and the non-dominant culture being collectivist
Ethnocentrism
- a type of culture bias which assumes superiority of a cultural/ethnic group
- most research comes from Western cultures (particularly US and Europe)
- comparitivaly can see other cultures as ‘unsophisticated’
Cultural Relativism
- a way of overcoming ethnocentrism
- the idea that the assessment of norms, values and behaviours can only be meaningful if understood within the specific social and cultural context
- it does appreciate that a persons own cultural background can affect the view they may have and the behaviours they display
Etic
- looks at behaviours from outside of a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours as universal
Emic
- looks at behaviour from within a given culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture
Free Will
- our actions are voluntary and we have freedom of choice
- humans can make choices and aren’t determined by biological or environmental forces
- there are no restraints on choice from the options available and we may choose to not choose any of the presented choices
Determinism
- the assumption that people can’t be held accountable for their actions because their behaviour is determined (caused) by external or internal factors acting outside their control
Hard Determinism
- free will is not possible
- behaviour always caused by internal or external factors we can’t control
- all human behaviour has a cause and we should be able to identify these causes
- compatible with the aims of science - to uncover causal laws that govern thought and action
Soft Determinism
- human behaviour has a cause but is also dtermined by conscious choices over how we behave
- while science can explain the deteriming causes that act upon us, within that we have freedom to make rational conscious choices
Biological Determinism
- any form of biological influence on the body eg genetics, brain, physiology + biochemistry
Environmental Determinism
- behvaiour is determined by environmental influences
- behaviour can be altered by environment and the people in someones environment
Psychic Determinism
- considers role of unconscious on conscious thought and how that affects behaviour
- every action has a cause originated in the unconscious
Nativism
- stance that agrees with the nature side
- suggests human soul was born with an understanding of key concepts, predispositions and pre-programmed behaviour
Empiricism
- suggests we are born without any innate mechanisms
- born with a blank slate and we learn from our experiences with the environment
Epigenetics
- refers to change in genetic activity without changing the genes themselves
- a process that happens throughout life and is caused by interaction with the environment
- aspects of our lifestyle or events we encounter (eg smoking, diet, trauma, war) leave marks on our DNA which switch genes on or off
- this explains why factors such as smoking have a lifelong influence even after you stop - they have changed the way your genes will be expressed
Interactionist
- the view that processes of nature and nurture work together rather than in opposition
- researchers study how nature and nurture interact and influence each other
Diathesis-Stress Model
- one conceptualisation of interactionist approach that allows us to explain behaviours such as mental illness using model of biological/genetic vulnerability (diathesis) interacting with an environmental influence (stressor) in order to produce a behaviour
Highest Level of Reductionism
socio-cultural explanations
Middle Level of Reductionism
psycholgical explanations
Lowest Level of Reductionism
biological explanations
Holism
- attempts to break down behaviour to its constituent parts is inappropriate and behaviour can only be explained by considering the whole person
- social context has utmost importance
Reductionism
principle of taking complex human behaviour and attempting to explain and understand it by breaking it down and reducing it into its simple constituent parts
Biological Reductionism
- reduced to physical level
- genes, evolution, neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones etc
Environmental Reductionism
- stimulus + response links measurable in lab
- interaction with environment
Machine Reductionism
- information processing like a computer
- input, output, storage
Idiographic
- focus on individual + recognition of private, subjective + conscious experiences
- investigations gain written information unique to individual being studied using qualitative methods
- no general laws are possible because of chance, free will and uniqueness of individuals
Nomothetic
- traditional science by creating hypothesis and testing it
- focuses on similarities between people by studying large groups
- mainly quantitative data
- group averages are statistically analysed for significance to create predictions about people
- attempts to establish laws and generalisations about people
3 Nomothetic Laws
1) classifying people in to groups
2) establishing principles of behaviour
3) establishing dimensions on which people can be placed and compared on
Socially Sensitive Research
- studies in which there are potential consequences or implications either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research
5 Areas of Social Sensitivity in Psychological Research
1) deciding what to research
2) the use of knowledge and application of findings
3) the influence on society and public policy
4) the availability of research
5) the institutional context and sources of research funding
Social Sensitivity: Deciding What to Research
- even the act of phrasing a hypothesis - deciding who and what to be investigated has ethical implications
Social Sensitivity: The Use of Knowledge and Application of Findings
- sometimes research may have implications that were not originally intended
- it’s the responsibility of psychologists to consider how their findings will be used and who will be affected by them
Social Sensitivity: The Influence On Society and Public Policy
- psychologists can be influential in respect to helping shape public and political policy so bias and error by the psychologist must be avoided if it is to have a real-world impact and lead to positive changes in society
Social Sensitivity: The Availability of Research
- in areas of research that are socially sensitive the researcher has a responsibility to clarify exactly who has direct access to their work
- they should also be aware of any misuses/distortions of their work by the media
Social Sensitivity: The Institutional Context and Sources of Research Funding
- research may be funded and managed by private institutions who may misuse the data or misunderstand the data that is produced
- the media may also obtain such research and misreport findings to maintain the status quo or to appeal to their readership
Gender Bias: Alpha Bias Research Example
psychodynamic approach
- viewed femininity as failed masculinity
- women seen as inferior to men in Victorian society
Gender Bias: Beta Bias Research Example
SPE
- only male sample
- applies findings to women and ignores any differences in how women may react in the situation
Culture Bias: Alpha Bias Research Example
SZ diagnosis
- exaggerating differences between cultures
- over diagnosing black people compared to white people
- causes self fulfilling rpophecy
Culture Bias: Beta Bias Research Example
Strange Situation
- used same way to measure attachment in every culture
- leads to view that certain countries aren’t parenting right because they have less securely attached children
Free Will Research Example
humanistic approach
Biological Determinist Research Example
OCD caused by ‘worry circuit’ and genes
Environmentally Determinist Research Example
phobias caused by two process model
Psychic Determinist Research Example
freudian slips
Scientific Emphasis on Causal Explanations
- the idea that if you control all variables apart from the one you’re chooisng to manipulate and it causes and change in behaviour then it must be that factor that is responsible fo the change in behaviour
- this is scientific as if you control all EVs then the change in IV causes a change in DV
- this is determinism: that behaviour can be identified and measured
- but if something shows a cause and effect relationship such as in a lab this is scientific as you have determined the ultimate cause
Role of Nature Research Example
biological approach to diagnosing OCD
Role of Nurture Research Example
behaviourist approach to diagnosing phobias
Levels of Explanation Research Example
conformity
- highest level: feeling pressure to act in a similar way to the group
- middle level: NSI - having a desire to be liked
- lowest level: evolutionary origins for survival
Idiographic Research Example
psychodynamic approach
- based on case study of Little Hans
Idiographic Research Methods
- case studies
- unstructured interview
- untructured observation
Nomothetic Research Methods
- lab experiment
- structured observation
- closed questions
Nomothetic Research Example
Milgram
- scientific procedure
- explained obedience across populations
- identified general laws of obedience
SSR Examples
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
- may promote stereotypes of mum staying home
- leads to gender bias
obedience
- used as excuse to justify atrocities
parrtner preference
- controversial language justifies discrimination
- could historically have influenced public policy
How to Deal with Issue of Social Sensitivity
- cost benefit analysis
- strong insurance about confidentiality
- follow up on ps to ensure no harm
- more sensitivity in debriefing process
