Issues + Debates: Key Terms + Points

Question 1

Gender Bias

Answer 1

• treating or representing men and women differently based on stereotypes rather than actual differences
• this distorts the view of what behaviours we might see as typical and atypical for each gender
• theory/research not justifiably representing the experience of men or women (usually women)

Question 2

Universality

Answer 2

• the belief that all humans are alike so what is true for one person is true for everyone
• the aim is to develop theories that apply to all people, and that could include any real differences between genders or cultures
• the solution is to recognise differences but not the superiority of one gender or culture over another

Question 3

Alpha Bias + Consequence

Answer 3

• research that exaggerates the difference between genders or cultures (usually making females or non-Western cultures seem inferior)
• the consequence of this is that it can lead to theories that devalue one gender or culture in comparison to another

Question 4

Beta Bias + Consequence

Answer 4

• research that minimises the differences between genders or cultures and assume they are the same
• the consequence of this is that theories could ignore questions about the lives of women or people in non-Western cultures or assume that insights derived from studies of men or Western cultures will apply equally to women or non-Western cultures

Question 5

Androcentrism + Consequence

Answer 5

• research that takes a male-centred view of the world
• ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard
• thus, female behaviour can be seen as ‘deficient’ in comparison
• any differences may be considered to have no value
• the consequence of this is that it can lead to alpha or beta bias in research

Question 6

Culture Bias

Answer 6

• refers to when a norm or standard of behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of one culture
• as a result any differences that deviate from this standard will inevitably be seen as ‘abnormal’, ‘inferior’ or ‘unusual’
• this is usually in reference to the dominant culture being individualist and the non-dominant culture being collectivist

Question 7

Ethnocentrism

Answer 7

• a type of culture bias which assumes superiority of a cultural/ethnic group
• most research comes from Western cultures (particularly US and Europe)
• comparitivaly can see other cultures as ‘unsophisticated’

Question 8

Cultural Relativism

Answer 8

• a way of overcoming ethnocentrism
• the idea that the assessment of norms, values and behaviours can only be meaningful if understood within the specific social and cultural context
• it does appreciate that a persons own cultural background can affect the view they may have and the behaviours they display

Question 9

Etic

Answer 9

• looks at behaviours from outside of a given culture and attempts to describe those behaviours as universal

Question 10

Emic

Answer 10

• looks at behaviour from within a given culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture

Question 11

Free Will

Answer 11

• our actions are voluntary and we have freedom of choice
• humans can make choices and aren’t determined by biological or environmental forces
• there are no restraints on choice from the options available and we may choose to not choose any of the presented choices

Question 12

Determinism

Answer 12

• the assumption that people can’t be held accountable for their actions because their behaviour is determined (caused) by external or internal factors acting outside their control

Question 13

Hard Determinism

Answer 13

• free will is not possible
• behaviour always caused by internal or external factors we can’t control
• all human behaviour has a cause and we should be able to identify these causes
• compatible with the aims of science - to uncover causal laws that govern thought and action

Question 14

Soft Determinism

Answer 14

• human behaviour has a cause but is also dtermined by conscious choices over how we behave
• while science can explain the deteriming causes that act upon us, within that we have freedom to make rational conscious choices

Question 15

Biological Determinism

Answer 15

• any form of biological influence on the body eg genetics, brain, physiology + biochemistry

Question 16

Environmental Determinism

Answer 16

• behvaiour is determined by environmental influences
• behaviour can be altered by environment and the people in someones environment

Question 17

Psychic Determinism

Answer 17

• considers role of unconscious on conscious thought and how that affects behaviour
• every action has a cause originated in the unconscious

Question 18

Nativism

Answer 18

• stance that agrees with the nature side
• suggests human soul was born with an understanding of key concepts, predispositions and pre-programmed behaviour

Question 19

Empiricism

Answer 19

• suggests we are born without any innate mechanisms
• born with a blank slate and we learn from our experiences with the environment

Question 20

Epigenetics

Answer 20

• refers to change in genetic activity without changing the genes themselves
• a process that happens throughout life and is caused by interaction with the environment
• aspects of our lifestyle or events we encounter (eg smoking, diet, trauma, war) leave marks on our DNA which switch genes on or off
• this explains why factors such as smoking have a lifelong influence even after you stop - they have changed the way your genes will be expressed

Question 21

Interactionist

Answer 21

• the view that processes of nature and nurture work together rather than in opposition
• researchers study how nature and nurture interact and influence each other

Question 22

Diathesis-Stress Model

Answer 22

• one conceptualisation of interactionist approach that allows us to explain behaviours such as mental illness using model of biological/genetic vulnerability (diathesis) interacting with an environmental influence (stressor) in order to produce a behaviour

Question 23

Highest Level of Reductionism

Answer 23

socio-cultural explanations

Question 24

Middle Level of Reductionism

Answer 24

psycholgical explanations

Question 25

Lowest Level of Reductionism

Answer 25

biological explanations

Question 26

Holism

Answer 26

• attempts to break down behaviour to its constituent parts is inappropriate and behaviour can only be explained by considering the whole person
• social context has utmost importance

Question 27

Reductionism

Answer 27

principle of taking complex human behaviour and attempting to explain and understand it by breaking it down and reducing it into its simple constituent parts

Question 28

Biological Reductionism

Answer 28

• reduced to physical level
• genes, evolution, neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones etc

Question 29

Environmental Reductionism

Answer 29

• stimulus + response links measurable in lab
• interaction with environment

Question 30

Machine Reductionism

Answer 30

• information processing like a computer
• input, output, storage

Question 31

Idiographic

Answer 31

• focus on individual + recognition of private, subjective + conscious experiences
• investigations gain written information unique to individual being studied using qualitative methods
• no general laws are possible because of chance, free will and uniqueness of individuals

Question 32

Nomothetic

Answer 32

• traditional science by creating hypothesis and testing it
• focuses on similarities between people by studying large groups
• mainly quantitative data
• group averages are statistically analysed for significance to create predictions about people
• attempts to establish laws and generalisations about people

Question 33

3 Nomothetic Laws

Answer 33

1) classifying people in to groups
2) establishing principles of behaviour
3) establishing dimensions on which people can be placed and compared on

Question 34

Socially Sensitive Research

Answer 34

• studies in which there are potential consequences or implications either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research

Question 35

5 Areas of Social Sensitivity in Psychological Research

Answer 35

1) deciding what to research
2) the use of knowledge and application of findings
3) the influence on society and public policy
4) the availability of research
5) the institutional context and sources of research funding

Question 36

Social Sensitivity: Deciding What to Research

Answer 36

• even the act of phrasing a hypothesis - deciding who and what to be investigated has ethical implications

Question 37

Social Sensitivity: The Use of Knowledge and Application of Findings

Answer 37

• sometimes research may have implications that were not originally intended
• it’s the responsibility of psychologists to consider how their findings will be used and who will be affected by them

Question 38

Social Sensitivity: The Influence On Society and Public Policy

Answer 38

• psychologists can be influential in respect to helping shape public and political policy so bias and error by the psychologist must be avoided if it is to have a real-world impact and lead to positive changes in society

Question 39

Social Sensitivity: The Availability of Research

Answer 39

• in areas of research that are socially sensitive the researcher has a responsibility to clarify exactly who has direct access to their work
• they should also be aware of any misuses/distortions of their work by the media

Question 40

Social Sensitivity: The Institutional Context and Sources of Research Funding

Answer 40

• research may be funded and managed by private institutions who may misuse the data or misunderstand the data that is produced
• the media may also obtain such research and misreport findings to maintain the status quo or to appeal to their readership