Psychopathology Flashcards
definitions of abnormality: statistical infrequency
doesn’t happen often. considering normal distributions helps as when we measure certain variables, we should find a bell-shaped curve. 95% of people fall into the ‘normal distribution’ and the others would be found in the ‘abnormal category’.
+ This distinction can be useful, especially in contexts like using IQ scores to assess mental health. For example, an IQ that falls below two standard deviations from the mean can indicate a potential mental disorder, such as intellectual disability. In this case, the infrequency of extremely low IQ scores becomes a useful tool for identifying individuals who may need additional support or interventions. Thus, while traits like IQ can offer insights, it’s important to consider their context and the potential for them to signal both beneficial and undesirable outcomes.
- However, it is important to note that the research is unable to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviors, as well as the impact of infrequency. For instance, a high IQ might be seen as a beneficial trait, but it could also be considered undesirable in certain contexts, depending on other factors like social interaction or emotional intelligence. Therefore, while certain traits may be generally preferred, the context and the balance of other characteristics also play a significant role in determining their desirability.
definitions of abnormality: deviation from social norms
this is what is considered to be socially acceptable, anyone who deviates is seen as abnormal. e.g. homosexuality was once seen as a deviation from social norms.
- Cultural bias is another concern, as one culture’s definition of what is considered “normal” or “disordered” may differ from another, leading to a skewed interpretation of behaviours. For example, homosexuality has historically been classified as a disorder in some cultures because it contravenes traditional social norms, while in others, it is seen as a natural variation of human sexuality. This highlights how cultural perspectives can influence the classification of behaviours, making it important to consider cultural context when assessing mental health or behavioural disorders to avoid imposing one culture’s norms onto others.
+ It does distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviors, unlike statistical infrequency, by considering the impact these behaviors have on others. For example, while a high IQ is generally seen as desirable, certain behaviours or deviations, such as aggressive or socially disruptive actions, may have negative consequences for individuals or groups, even if they are statistically infrequent. This approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of behaviour, taking into account not only a rarity but also the broader effects on society or interpersonal relationships.
definitions of abnormality: failure to function adequately
a person may cross the line from normal to abnormal when they can no longer cope with everyday life e.g. hold a job down, or eat properly. Rosenhan and Seligman produce signs of this behaviour:
the person can no longer conform to interpersonal signs
experiencing distress
irrational or dangerous behaviour.
- The concept of failure to function adequately is subjective when determining whether a patient is experiencing distress, as it often relies on a psychologist’s judgment. What one clinician perceives as dysfunctional behavior might be seen as a normal coping mechanism by another. This subjectivity can lead to inconsistent assessments and potentially overlook individual differences in how distress is experienced. As a result, the determination of whether someone is failing to function adequately is not always objective, and it can vary depending on the personal perspectives and biases of the psychologist making the assessment.
+ However, it can be made more objective when using standardized criteria, such as the WHODAS (World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule). This tool provides a structured framework for assessing an individual’s functioning across multiple domains, reducing the subjectivity involved in determining distress. Additionally, the WHODAS acknowledges the individual’s subjective experience by considering how they perceive their functioning, which ensures that the person’s perspective is taken into account while maintaining a more objective approach. This balance allows for a more comprehensive and consistent assessment of failure to function adequately.
definitions of abnormality: deviation from ideal mental health
Jahoda recognised that in physical health, we define good health through the absence of signs, and decided mental health should be the same.Shee proposed 6 categories of good mental health:
self attitudes
personal growth and self-actualisation
integration
autonomy
accurate perception of reality
mastery of the environment
the absence of these indicate an abnormality.
- It is argued that Jahoda’s criteria for good mental health are unrealistic, as most people would fall short of meeting all the standards. For instance, self-actualization, autonomy, and a sense of purpose might be difficult for many individuals to fully achieve. Additionally, there is a strong element of cultural relativism in this model; in collectivist societies, where group harmony and community are prioritized over individual achievement, concepts like self-actualization may not be as highly valued or even seen as desirable. This raises concerns about the universal applicability of Jahoda’s criteria across different cultural contexts.
+ However, Jahoda’s categories of good mental health provide a comprehensive list that covers a broad range of criteria for assessing and treating mental health. Unlike approaches that focus solely on dysfunction, Jahoda’s model emphasizes positive aspects of mental well-being, such as self-actualization, autonomy, and personal growth. This focus on desirable traits helps shift the perspective from merely identifying problems to promoting strengths and well-being, encouraging a more holistic approach to mental health treatment and development.
mental disorders: defining mental disorders
DSM - USA
ICD - UK.
According to MIND, 1 in 4 people suffer from a mental disorder: phobia: 2.6%
depression: 2.6%
OCD: 1.3%
Using 2 different manuals may lead to different diagnoses = culture bias.
mental disorders: what is a phobia?
phobias are characterised by excessive fear and anxiety, triggered by an object, place, or situation. the DSM recognises the following categories:
specific phobia (object/situation)
social anxiety (social situations)
agoraphobia (public places)
mental disorders: what are the BEC characteristics of a phobia?
Behavioural: panic, endurance, avoidance.
Emotional: anxiety
Cognitive: selective attention, irrational beliefs, cognitive distortions.
mental disorders: what is depression?
depression is classified as a mood disorder. The DSM recognises the following categories:
major depressive disorder (severe, short-term)
persistent depressive disorder (long-term)
disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (childhood temper tantrums)
premenstrual dysphoric disorder (disruption to mood during mestruation)
mental disorders: what are the BEC characteristics of depression?
Behavioural: low activity levels, disruption to sleep/eating, aggression
Emotional: lowered mood, anger, low self-esteem
Cognitive: poor concentration, dwelling on the negatives, absolutist thinking.
mental disorders: what is OCD?
OCD involves obsessions and/or compulsions. e.g. hoarding disorder: compulsive gathering of possessions
mental disorders: what are the BEC characteristics of OCD?
Behavioural: compulsions (repetitive and reduce anxiety) avoidance
Emotional: anxiety and stress, guilt and disgust, depression
Cognitive: irrational thoughts, catastrophic thinking, cognitive strategies, insight into excessive anxiety
the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias: two-process model Mowrer
This emphasises the role of learning in constructing behaviour: Phobias are learnt through classical conditioning and continue due to operant conditioning, which involves associating a neutral stimulus (no fear) to an unconditioned stimulus (fear).
the reason for continuation is operant conditioning and reinforcement through reward. the reward is avoiding an unpleasant situation as it reduces fear (negative reinforcement).
the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias: Little Albert
Watson and Raynor created a phobia in Albert by showing him a rat, accompanied with a loud bang. the noise (UCR) created fear (UCR). the rat (NS) and the UCS (noise) were paired, so the NS became associated with the UCS to produce fear of the rat. the rat becomes a CS, producing a CR. This conditioning is then generalised to similar objects (rabbit, as it was also furry).
the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias: evaluation
The diathesis-stress model may offer a more comprehensive explanation for phobias compared to other theories. According to this model, individuals possess a genetic vulnerability (diathesis) that, when combined with environmental stressors, can lead to the development of psychological disorders, such as phobias. Di Nardo’s research supports this model, as it showed that not all individuals who experience a traumatic event, like being bitten by a dog, develop a phobia of dogs. This suggests that while the traumatic experience serves as the stressor, the presence of a genetic predisposition to anxiety or phobias plays a significant role in whether the individual will develop a phobia. Therefore, the diathesis-stress model highlights the importance of both nature and nurture in the development of phobias, making it a valuable tool for understanding the complexity of phobic disorders.
The behaviourist approach to explaining phobias overlooks the role of cognitive factors, which are crucial in understanding how phobias develop. While the behaviourist perspective emphasizes learned behaviours, such as classical conditioning, the cognitive approach offers a more comprehensive explanation by focusing on the role of irrational thinking. According to the cognitive approach, phobias arise when individuals develop distorted thoughts or beliefs about certain objects or situations, which in turn create anxiety and trigger a phobic response. For instance, someone with a fear of spiders might irrationally believe that all spiders are dangerous, even when they pose no real threat. This irrational thinking intensifies their fear, leading to the development of a phobia. Therefore, the cognitive approach provides a more nuanced understanding of phobias, highlighting the importance of mental processes in the formation and maintenance of these disorders.
the cognitive approach to explaining depression: Beck’s 3 parts of cognitive vulnerability
faulty information processing: e.g. highlighting the negatives and ignoring the positives, small problems are blown out of proportion (catastrophic thinking)
negative schemas: developed in childhood to view the world negatively. these become activated in a situation resembling the one where the original schema was learnt. these lead to cognitive biases in thinking.
Negative triad: a dysfunctional view of self emerges due to types of automatic negative thinking: the self, the world, and the future.
the cognitive approach to explaining depression: Ellis’ ABC model
the cause of depression lies within irrational beliefs.
A healthy ABC model:
A: activating event e.g. getting fired
B: Belief e.g. the company was overstaffed
C: Consequence: e.g. acceptance
An unhealthy ABC model:
A: getting fired
B: they hate me
C: Depression
irrational beliefs are caused by musturbatory thinking (certain ideas must be true for happiness). holding such beliefs inevitably leads to disappointment and/or depression
the cognitive approach to explaining depression evaluation
+ Hammen and Krantz’s research supports Ellis’ belief that irrational thinking is linked to depression by showing that depressed individuals make more errors in logic compared to non-depressed individuals. Their study found that participants who were depressed made more logical errors than those who were not depressed, highlighting a cognitive difference between the two groups. This finding aligns with Ellis’ theory, which suggests that irrational thoughts, such as faulty logic or distorted thinking patterns, are a key factor in the development and maintenance of depression. The increased logical errors in depressed participants suggest that such cognitive distortions might contribute to depressive symptoms. Therefore, Hammen and Krantz’s study provides evidence for the connection between irrational thinking and depression, further supporting Ellis’ theory about cognitive patterns in mental health.
- Biology may have a greater influence on depression than the cognitive approach recognizes, as evidenced by Zhang’s research linking genes and neurotransmitters to depression. Zhang suggests that low levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter, are associated with depression, highlighting the biological factors at play. This contrasts with the cognitive approach, which focuses primarily on thought patterns and cognitive distortions. The cognitive approach tends to focus on mental processes and how irrational thinking can lead to depression, but it overlooks the significant role that genetic and neurochemical factors, like serotonin levels, may play in the development of depression. By ignoring these biological influences, the cognitive approach can be seen as reductionist, simplifying a complex mental health issue.
Therefore, Zhang’s findings suggest that a more comprehensive understanding of depression should incorporate both biological and cognitive factors, challenging the reductionist nature of the cognitive approach.
the biological approach to explaining OCD: genetic explanations
mental disorders may be inherited so we can consider specific genes that are inherited that are related to the onset of OCD.
genes are involved in individual vulnerability to OCD (candidate genes)
Several genes are involved in OCD - it is a polygenic condition
according to the diathesis-stress model, certain genes leave people more likely to suffer a disorder, but not for certain - it requires an environmental experience to trigger it.
the biological approach to explaining OCD: genetic explanations - the COMT gene
the COMT gene produces COMT, which regulates the production of dopamine which controls the brains pleasure centre. a form of the COMT gene is found to be more common in OCD patients; this variation lowers the activity of COMT gene and so allows for higher levels of dopamine, which strengthens the desire to seek pleasure
the biological approach to explaining OCD: genetic explanations - the SERT gene
this affects the transportation of Serotonin which maintains mood balance i.e. making us happy, creating lower levels of it which is a feature of OCD. Ozaki found a mutation of this gene in 2 unrelated families with 6/7 members suffering OCD.
the biological approach to explaining OCD: neural explanations - abnormal levels of neurotransmitters
dopamine levels are abnormally high in OCD patients
high doses of dopamine drugs induce OCD-like behaviours such as compulsions
lower levels of serotonin are associated with OCD
antidepressants that increase serotonin have been shown to reduce symptoms.
the biological approach to explaining OCD: neural explanations - abnormal brain circuits
several areas of the frontal lobe are abnormal in OCD patients.
the caudate nucleus usually suppresses signals from the OFC. the OFC then sends a signal to the Thalamus about worrying things e.g. germs. when the thalamus is damaged, it fails to suppress minor worries; the thalamus is alerted which then sends the signal back to the OFC. this creates a worry circuit.
it appears that abnormal levels of serotonin cause these areas to malfunction. Dopamine is also linked to high levels of overactivity in the Basal Gland.
the biological approach to explaining OCD: evaluation
- While the cognitive approach suggests a strong genetic influence on the development of OCD, the two-process model offers an alternative explanation for the formation of mental disorders.
The two-process model argues that OCD and other mental disorders are developed through classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus, such as dirt, becomes associated with anxiety. This anxiety is then maintained through operant conditioning, where a behaviour like hand washing reduces the anxiety, reinforcing the obsession. According to the two-process model, the initial association between a neutral stimulus (dirt) and anxiety leads to an obsession. The compulsive behaviour (hand washing) is then learned and maintained because it alleviates the anxiety, creating a cycle of reinforcement. This model emphasizes the role of learning rather than genetics in the development of mental disorders like OCD. In contrast to the cognitive approach’s emphasis on genetic factors, the two-process model highlights the role of environmental and learning factors in the development of OCD, providing a different perspective on the origins of mental disorders.
+ Research into the genetic factors of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) supports the cognitive approach, which suggests that OCD has a strong genetic influence. Nestadt reviewed twin studies and found that 68% of identical twins shared OCD, compared to only 31% of non-identical twins. Additionally, people with first-degree relatives suffering from OCD are five times more likely to develop the disorder themselves. These findings indicate that genetic factors play a significant role in the development of OCD. The higher concordance rates in identical twins suggest that genetics contribute more strongly to OCD than environmental factors. The increased risk among those with first-degree relatives further supports this genetic link. Therefore, these studies provide strong evidence for the cognitive approach’s theory that OCD has a genetic basis, supporting the idea that the disorder may be inherited or passed down through generations.
the behaviourist approach to treating phobias: what is systematic desensitization?
this is therapy to reduce phobic anxiety through classical conditioning; the aim is to relax the sufferer in the presence of phobic stimuli.
