Attachment Flashcards
what are attachments?
-strong, long-lasting emotional bond to a particular individual
- one or more caregivers
-important for development
what are the characteristics of attachments?
- selective
- involves proximity seeking: physical closeness
- provide comfort and security
- can lead to distress
- involves a primary attachment figure, usually mother, mother/figure
- protect the infant
define reciprocity
when one person provokes a reaction from another eg baby cries
define interactional synchrony
when mother and infant behaviour mirror each other
Caregiver- infant interactions: Meltzoff and Moore
procedure
- 1977
- conducted a controlled experiment into interactional synchrony.
- the adult displayed one of three actions: mouth opening, termination of mouth opening, and tongue protrusion.
- the child’s response was filmed and judged by independent observers
- an association was found between the facial expressions of the mother and the actions of the baby.
- inter-observer reliability was greater than .92 - in a later study they demonstrated the same synchrony with infants 3 days old, thus suggesting this behaviour is innate.
Caregiver-infant interactions: Meltzoff and Moore
Evaluation
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- the babies do not know they are being filmed so have no social desirability
- Abravanel and DeYoung’s (1991) study provides support for Meltzoff and Moore’s theory of socially specific responses in infants. The researchers observed infants between 5 to 12 weeks interacting with two objects and found that they made little response to the objects. This finding suggests that infants at this age are not naturally responsive to nonsocial stimuli, which aligns with Meltzoff and Moore’s theory that infants have an inherent capacity to engage with social stimuli, such as imitating facial expressions. Since the infants did not react significantly to the objects, it supports the idea that their responses are more social in nature, rather than driven by general curiosity or interaction with inanimate objects. Therefore, Abravanel and DeYoung’s study offers empirical evidence that bolsters Meltzoff and Moore’s argument that infants are predisposed to engage in socially specific behaviors from an early age.
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- testing the behaviours of infants is hard because we dont know the behaviour is not just general behaviour as opposed to intimidation.
- Based on Isabella’s (1989) findings, infants may be at a disadvantage if their mothers return to work too soon, as it could disrupt the formation of a secure attachment. Isabella’s research emphasizes that secure attachment develops when a caregiver is consistently responsive and sensitive to an infant’s needs. If a mother returns to work and is less available to respond to her infant’s emotional needs, the infant may experience less consistent caregiving, potentially affecting the attachment bond. Secure attachment relies on the caregiver’s availability and responsiveness, and prolonged separations could hinder this process. Therefore, Isabella’s findings suggest that infants might be at a disadvantage if their primary attachment figure is frequently unavailable, though the extent of the disadvantage may depend on other factors like the quality of alternative care and the infant’s temperament.
Isabella et al
- 1989
- observed 30 mothers and infants to assess their synchrony and the quality of the attachment between the mother and the infant.
- it was found a higher the level of synchrony was associated with a better quality of mother-infant attachments.
Schaffer and Emerson
Method
- 1964
- sample of 60 babies - 31 male and 29 female from Glasgow
- the majority were from skilled working-class families
- during the 1st year the babies were visited by the researchers every month
- they were again visited at 18 months.
- mothers were asked how the baby protested in 7 everyday situations
- stranger anxiety was also tested
- the mother was asked to rate on a 4-point scale the intensity of the protest and who the protest was aimed at
Schaffer and Emerson
Findings
25-32 weeks: 50% of babies showed separation anxiety towards a particular adult
- attachment tended to be towards the person who interacted the most with them, not necessarily they spent the most time with.
- 40 weeks: 80% of babies had a specific attachment and 30% displayed multiple attachments.
Stage 1 of attachment:
Indiscrimate Attachments
- Birth - 8 weeks: the infants’ response is the same to animate or inanimate objects.
- towards the end of this stage, infants show a preference for social stimuli and are more content being with people.
Stage 2 of attachments
The Beginnnings of Attachment
- 4 months: infants become more social, preferring human company to inamimate objects
- do not show stranger anxiety
Stage 3 of attachment
Discrimate Attachments
- 7 months
- they show protest to being put down (separation anxiety)
- believed to have formed a specific attachment to one person, their primary attachment figure.
- display stranger anxiety
Stage 4 of attachment
Multiple Attachments
within 1 month of becoming attached, Schaffer and Emerson found that 29% of the infants had multiple attachments with someone else. these are secondary attachments and infants will display secondary attachments and infants will display separation anxiety.
- by 6 months, this was 78% of infants
by 1 year old, 1/3 of infants will have 5 or more secondary attachments.
- by 18 months, 75% of infants have attached with their father.
Schaffer and Emerson
Evaluation
- staging attachments can be problematic as it leads to labelling people as abnormal if they do not fit in the stages. it assumes development has to follow a certain pattern and is inflexible when the reality may be different.
-Sample bias: working class families in Glasgow, can the findings be applied to other classes and places? it was conducted in 1960s and families have changed, more working mothers and stay at home fathers.
-Multiple attachments: are these all equal? some psychologists dont agree, such as Bowlby argues that the primary attachment is crucial for development, Rutter argues that all attachments influence development.
why are fathers less likely to be the primary attachment?
- mothers breastfeed
- men lack emotional sensitivity
- spend less time with the infant - maternity leave
Role of the father:
Field
- 1978
- Believes the key to attachment was the responsiveness of the parent. those that luagh, smile, and hold the infant are much more likely to be attached to.
Role of the father:
Grossman
- 2002
- Longitudinal study looking at parents behaviour and quality of attachment
Role of the father
Schaffer and Emerson
they found that the most interactive care-giver was attached to
Role of the father
Role of Oestogen
Oestrogen is linked to caring behaviour, which is a hormone women produce.
Role of the father
Evaluation
- Each family is different (single, same-sex), so attachments may differ: individual differences.
- Men may feel pressured: they aren’t as responsible as women.
- Mens’ lack of sensitivity promotes risk-taking, they are not worried if the infant hurts themselves. it also promotes creativity
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Harry Harlow
Procedure
- two wire monkeys with different heads
- one of the wire monkeys was wrapped in cloth
- 8 infant Rhesus monkeys were studied for 165 days
- 4 monkeys the cloth monkey had a milk bottle
- the remaining 4 the wire monkey had the milk bottle
- how long the monkeys spent with each monkey was measured
- what the infants did when scared was also monitored.
Harry Harlow
Findings
- the cloth monkey was the most popular whether it had a feeding bottle or not
- the infants only spent a short amount of time feeding from the wire monkeys before returning to the cloth monkey (contact comfort)
- when frightened all monkeys all monkeys clung to the cloth monkey (proximity-seeking behaviour)
- when playing with a new toy, they would keep one foot on the cloth monkey for reassurance (secure base)
Harry Harlow
variations of the study
- rape rack
- pit of despair
- spikes on the cloth/wire monkey
Harry Harlow
Ethical issues
- females made to mate with male against their will
- purposefully hurt the monkeys (metal spikes, harsh air)
- Pit of despair - isolating the monkeys for 1 year
Harry Harlow
Long- lasting effects on the monkeys
- never learned to socialize
- Were not interested in reproduction
- couldn’t form relationships
- not good offspring - kill offspring. Due to a lack of an internal working model
Harry Harlow
Evaluation
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- Long-lasting detrimental effects for the monkeys
- Extrapolation
- Variables: the monkeys had 2 different heads so the monkeys could have preferred the monkey with the most realistic face - compound results
Lorenz
Procedure
1935
- two sets of eggs: one hatches naturally (first see mother) one hatch in incubator (first see Lorenz)
Lorenz
Findings
- Critical Period: first 2 days of life, Goslings imprint on what they see move in front of them. One set imprints on Lorenz, other pair imprints on Mother Goose.
- This affected mate preference
Lorenz
Evaluation
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- Guitton supports Lorenz’ findings. he exposed chickens to a rubber glove, which they imprinted on. Male chickens tried to mate with the glove.
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-Extrapolation: not 100% accurate.
Classical Conditioning
Before Conditioning
food = unconditioned stimulus
pleasure = unconditioned response
mother = neutral stimulus
Baby doesn’t make the association of feeling hungry, crying, food, mother providing milk and pleasure - there is no direct response.
Classical Conditioning
During Conditioning
Because of the repetitive process of feeding, the UCS (food) and NS (mum) are linked. The infant is learning that mother provides the food.
Classical Conditioning
After Conditioning
NS (mum) becomes CS (conditioned stimulus)
UCR (pleasure) becomes CR (conditioned response)
The association has happened. The infant now forms an attachment through the feeding process.
Operant conditioning
Based on the idea of reward and punishment. if you do something and receive a pleasant reward, the behaviour is reinforced and is, therefore, more likely to be repeated. If you do something and receive an unpleasant reward, it is less likely to be repeated due to punishment.
Drive reduction theory
Dollard and Miller (1950) explained attachment using operant conditioning and drive reduction theory.
When a hungry baby feels uncomfortable, it reduces this discomfort. When this baby is fed, this drive is reduced and produces a feeling of pleasure so likely to be repeated. Food becomes a primary reinforcer, it supplies the reward and reinforces the behaviour to avoid discomfort. The person supplying the food becomes a secondary reinforcer as the baby associates them with food and reducing the discomfort. An attachment develops with the person who supplies the reward.
Learning Theory
Evaluation
- drive reduction theory is considered outdated by many Psychologists: only explains some behaviours.
- extrapolation: based on research with animals so not 100% accurate.
- Harlow: attachment isn’t based on the feeding process as his monkeys would go back to the cloth monkey.
Bowlby’s monotropic theory:
Why do attachments form?
Proximity: Bowlby was influenced by ethology - attachments are innate. He believed it was a way of protecting the young - it has been adapted over time to promote survival.
Attachment serves to keep the infant and caregiver close and is a two-way process, so both parties develop behaviors to keep them physically close. e.g. holding hands
Proximity leads to a strong emotional bond - love. Bowlby argued this was vital for a childs’ PIES development.
Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory
How do attachments form?
Critical periods: if attachments are innate, they have a limited time to develop ( 3 - 6 months)
After this, it becomes harder to form an attachment. Bowlby believed maternal sensitivity was important: those who respond to a child’s will have a stronger attachment.
Social releasers (smiling) are key to attachment during the critical period.
Monotropy: infants innately become attached to one person. it is believed to be essential to healthy psychological development. He believed attachments could form with anyone e.g. grandparents, uncles, aunties etc, but primary attachment is mother figure.
Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory
Consequences of attachment
Internal Working Model: The mother/ child relationship provides a model for all other relationships. A child with a warm, close primary attachment would expect the same from other relationships. In the short term, it helps the child understand the caregivers’ behaviour and to influence it, so a partnership forms between the two.
- Continuity hypothesis: children with secure attachments in infancy will continue to have good social/ emotional relationships throughout life. Children who don’t have a secure attachment will develop emotional problems.
- Cognitive Development: a strong primary attachment is essential for the development of thinking, reasoning, and problem solving because it allows the secure exploration of new environment, due to the child having a safe return.
Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory
Evaluation
-In contrast to Bowlby’s monotropic theory, which emphasizes the importance of a primary attachment figure, Thomas (1995) argued that multiple attachments are not only possible but desirable. He suggested that having a range of attachments can support a child’s cognitive development more effectively. Research supports this view, showing that children benefit from having strong, varied relationships with multiple figures, such as grandparents, which provides a broader social and emotional foundation. This perspective challenges Bowlby’s idea of a single, primary attachment figure and highlights the value of diverse attachments in fostering a child’s growth.
- Field (1978) found the key to attachment was the responsiveness of the caregiver, not time spent.
-The concept of a sensitive period suggests that attachment formation is most critical within the first few months of life. However, real-life cases challenge this notion, showing that children can still form attachments after the age of 3-6 months. For example, children placed with foster parents often develop strong emotional bonds despite being older than the suggested sensitive period. This evidence supports the idea that while early attachments are important, they are not necessarily confined to a narrow window. It suggests that children have the capacity to form meaningful attachments even later in infancy, therefore Bowlby’s monotropic theory is deterministic, as it suggests that it is difficult to form attachments after a certain age, despite their being real life evidence that criticises this.
Ainsworth Strange Situation
Procedure
A controlled observation in a laboratory with chairs and few toys, a two-way mirror, and a video recorder for the Psychologists to observe the parent and childs’ relationship. The infants’ responses to 4 behaviours are observed and recorded every 15 seconds.
- separation anxiety
- reunion behaviour
- stranger anxiety
- willingness to explore
the strange situation has the following procedures each of which lasts 3 minutes
- parent and infant enter room and play
- parent sits while infant plays
- stranger enters and talks to parents
- parent leaves, stranger offers comfort
- parent returns, stranger leaves
- parent leaves, infant alone
- stranger enters
- stranger enters
- parent returns
Ainsworth Strange Situation
Findings
- Secure Attachment: 60-75% of British toddlers
happily explore but regularly go back to the caregiver
moderate separation/stranger anxiety- Insecure- Avoidant:
20-25% of British toddlers
explore freely, don’t show a secure base
little/no reaction to separation
don’t seek comfort on reunion
little stranger anxiety
highly anxious - Insecure- Resistant:
3% of British toddlers
greater proximity - explore less
huge stranger anxiety
intensely distressed on separation
seek but resist comfort
seek but resist social interaction and intimacy.
- Insecure- Avoidant:
Answorth Strange Situation
Evaluation
Main and Soloman (1986) analyzed over 200 strange situations and discovered a 4th attachment type: Insecure-Disorganised - child not being consistent - very strong attachment then avoidant
Strange Situation has been criticized for ethical reasons: causing the child to cry. However, Ainsworth claimed this was no different than anything they experience in day-to-day life.
Cultural Variations
Procedure
Van Ljzendoorn conducted a study to look at the proportions of attachment types across a range of countries (inter-cultural differences). they also looked at differences within a country to get a perspective of variations within a culture (intra-cultural differences).
They conducted a meta-anaylsis of findings from 32 studies of attachment behaviour from 8 countries using the Strange Situation to investigate infants’ attachment types. they gathered from 200 children.
Cultural Variations
Findings
Britain: 7 studies, 75% secure, 22.2% insecure-avoidant, 2.8% insecure-resistant.
Germany: 3 studies, 56.6% secure, 35.3% insecure-avoidant, 8.1% insecure-resistant.
Japan: 2 studies, 67.7% secure, 5.2% insecure-avoidant, 25% insecure-resistant.
- Variations betwen culture/country was small
- Variations within culture was 1.5 x greater than variation between culture.
- Collectivist countries have higher IR than other countries
Cultural Variations
Explanations
- Grossman (1991) found German infants tend to be classed as insecure, rather than insecure due to different child-rearing practices. Caregivers tend to keep an interpersonal distance between them and the infant therefore proximity-seeking behaviour occurs less.
- In Japan, up until 12 months old, the mother will rarely leave her child therefore promoting dependence rather than independence. so if these children were in the Strange Situation, they would not explore, have severe separation/stranger anxiety, and would cry heavily if the mother left the room.
Cultural Variations
Evaluation
- The Imposed Etic: the strange situation was designed for America. we are imposing a Western belief on non-Western practices, so what’s secure in the USA may not be the same in Japan. Therefore, research using the Strange Situation may lack validity.
- The world is becoming smaller with mass media, affecting child-rearing practices, so cultural similarities in attachments may not be due to biology but an increase in global culture.
- Each country has different sub-cultures each of which may affect child-rearing techniques. A study in Urban Tokyo found attachment distributions similar to Western countries. However, when used in rural Tokyo there were more IR ratings, therefore applying findings with attachment research needs to be done with caution.
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation
Key idea
- Deprivation: loss of attachment
- Privation: no attachment made
- Bowlby proposed that prolonged emotional deprivation would have consequences on an individual in terms of their emotional development.
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation
Value of maternal care
Bowlby believed it wasn’t enough to state that a child needed just good physical care. He believed children needed a “warm, intimate, and continuous” relationship with mother or mother substitute. He believed this was essential for the child’s mental health.
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation
Critical Period
Bowlby believed that frequent/prolonged separation may lead to the child becoming emotionally disturbed. if this occurs during the critical period (2 1/2) and if the child didn’t have a substitute primary attachment then emotional damage can occur up to 5 years of age.
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation
Long-term consequences
Bowlby believed that if a child does suffer deprivation then there could be long-term consequences associated such as emotional maladjustment (Harlow’s monkeys) and mental health issues such as depression. They could also display affectionless psychopathy. This was demonstrated through his study 44 Juvenile Thieves. Bowlby also believed that children may have abnormally low IQs as cognitively they wouldn’t do as well.
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation: 44 Juvenile Thieves Procedure
in 1944, Bowlby analyzed the case histories of 88 of his patients at the Child Guidance Clinic in London. All of the children were emotionally maladjusted (didn’t act conventionally). Half had been caught stealing. The other half was a control group (non-criminal but emotionally disturbed). Bowlby suggested that some of the thieves were affectionless psychopaths who lacked normal signs of affection, shame, sense of responsibility. This enabled them to steal as it didn’t matter to them.
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation: 44 juvenile thieves findings
he found that the individuals diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths had experienced frequent/early separations from their mothers (12/13 86%) compared to 17%(5/30) of the other thieves. Almost none of the control group had experienced any early separation whereas 39% of all the thieves had experienced early separation such as being in foster homes or hospitals where they weren’t frequently visited by their families. Bowlby suggested lack of emotional care and separation was linked to affectionless psychopathy.
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation: 44 Juvenile Thieves evaluation
Physical and emotional separations: some psychologists argue that it isn’t just being physically separated from your primary attachment. Radke-Yarrow (1985) studied several depressed mothers and found that 55% of their children were insecurely attached, compared to 29% in the non-depressed group. therefore suggesting you can be physically present but not emotionally.
Effects of institutionalization: Rutter
Procedure
Since the 1900’s Rutter et al have led a study called ERA (English and Romanian adoptee). The study included 165 Romanian children who spent their early lives in Romanian institutions and therefore suffered the effects of institutionalization. out of the group (165), 111 were adopted before the age of 2, and the further 54 by the age of 4. The adopted children were tested regularly at the ages of 4,6,11, and 15. these tests have assessed their physical, social, and cognitive development. information has also been gathered from teachers, and parents in interviews. their progress has been compared to a control group of 52 British children in the UK adopted before 6 months.
Effects of institutionalisation: Rutter
Findings
At the time of the adoption, the Romanian orphans lagged behind British children physically, cognitively, and socially. They were smaller, weighed less, and were classed as mentally retarded. By the age of 4, some of the children had caught up with the British children. This was the case for most of the Romanian orphans who were adopted before the age of 6 months.
Follow-up studies showed that the deficits shown in a substantial minority of children who were institutionalized beyond 6 months showed disinhibited relationships and had problems with peer relationships.
Effects of instutionalisation: Le Mare and Audet
2006 reported findings from a longitudinal study of 36 Romanian orphans adopted into families in Canada. The dependent variable is physical growth and health. The adopted orphans were physically smaller than a matched control group at 4.5. However, by 10.5 the difference had disappeared. The same was found for physical health, suggesting that recovery is possible from the effects of institutionalization on physical development.
Effects of institutionalisation:
Zeanah
2005 compared 136 Romanian children who on average had spent 90% of their lives in an institution, to a control group of Romanians who had never been in an institution. they were aged 12-31 months and were assessed in the Strange Situation. the institutionalised children showed signs of disinhibited relationships.
Effects of institionalisation
- physical underdevelopment: children can be physically small which is called deprivated dwarfism.
- intellectual underfunctioning
effects of institutionalisation
evaluation
- individual differences: some children were completely isolated and some were in a cot all day. Not all children have the same experiences, therefore it will affect development in different ways.
- the British children who were adopted were adopted much younger than the Romanian children therefore the effect on development will not be the same.
- emotionally/socially sensitive research: has to be used in a proper way.
influence of internal working model
internal working model
the infant learns what relationships are and how people behave towards eachother. maternal deprivation can lead to a lack of an internal working model.
- operable used to predict the behaviour of other people in future relationships.
- schema= mental representation.
influence of internal working model
Hazan and Shaver
Questionnaire in newspaper - 620 responses. 205 male 415 female
the questions asked were about attachment history and current love experiences.
influence of internal working model
Minnesota parent-child study
followed participants from infancy to late adolescence - longitudinal.
continuity was found between early attachment and later emotional/social behaviour.
securely attached as an infant led to more social competence in later childhood, less social isolation, more popular and empathetic.
influence of internal working model
evaluation
- cause and effect: research is correlational so attachment so attachment types and the internal working model may not influence later relationships.
- retrospective classification: Hazan and Shaver’s Love Quiz is based on retrospective data and therefore lacks reliability as people would only remember the
extreme good/bad moments. - Kagan’s Temperament Hypothesis: some babies just do not want to attach.
- retrospective classification: Hazan and Shaver’s Love Quiz is based on retrospective data and therefore lacks reliability as people would only remember the
influence of IWM
findings
analysis of attachment history found the prevelance of attachment styles was similar to that found in infancy. 59% secure, 25% IA, 19% IR. A positive correlation was found between attachment types and the concept of love. `
influence of IWM:
Behaviours influencing the IWM
poor parenting: Harlow’s monkeys demonstrated this as they did not have a mother figure showing them how to show affection therefore a bad IWM. When the monkeys came to have children, they did not know how to parent and in some cases ended up killing their children.
Quinton: studied women in their 20s who were maternally deprived as a result of institutionalization so IWM was not good and affecting them as parents.
Mental health: Bowlby believed people who were deprived were more at risk of anxiety/depression. Attachment disorder - children have no preferred attachment figure, inability to interact is evident before the age of 5. Their IWM is damaged. Their social skills are completely lacking as a result of severe neglect/ frequent change of caregivers.
