Issues and Debates Flashcards
gender bias: what is universiality?
This means that a theory can be applied to everyone, regardless of gender and culture.
gender bias: how might a gender bias occur?
male sample: conducting research on an all-male sample and then generalising the findings to women.
male behaviour as standard: if the behaviour of a female differs from that of men then the behaviour is seen as a deviation from the norm.
biological difference emphasis: explanations for behaviour that emphasise the biology of an individual ignore the social and external factors and therefore are liable to infer there is a difference between the behaviour of the sexes, even if this may not be true.
gender bias: what are the 3 types of gender bias?
alpha bias
beta bias
andocentrism
gender bias: what is an alpha bias and give an example?
this exaggerates the differences between men and women: devaluing one gender in comparison to the other.
the psychodynamic approach: Freud believed females form a weaker super-ego than males.
Sexual Selection: sexual promiscuity is biologically determined in males, but not females.
gender bias: what is a beta bias and give an example?
this ignores or minimises the differences between men and women. it is assumed that findings from men will equally apply to women.
fight or flight: research is conducted on males and applied to females; however, some psychologists argue ‘tend and befriend’ fits females more appropriately.
gender bias: what is andocentrism and give an example?
the focus is on men and women are neglected. most of the contribution to psychological research is by men; both the participants and the researchers. this can result in alpha/beta bias.
gender bias: evaluation
Gender bias in psychological research has significant implications, particularly in perpetuating harmful stereotypes and affecting women’s mental health. One of the primary issues is that gender bias leads to inaccurate assumptions about female behavior, which can result in negative stereotypes. For instance, sexual selection theories often suggest that males are naturally promiscuous, while women who exhibit similar behavior are seen as going “against their nature,” reinforcing gendered expectations about sexuality. This type of bias not only distorts our understanding of gender differences but also supports double standards, where male behavior is seen as the norm and female behavior is judged harshly when it deviates. Such bias is evident in clinical settings as well, where women are more likely to be diagnosed with depression but underdiagnosed with conditions like schizophrenia, demonstrating how androcentrism can lead to misdiagnosis and harmful consequences for women’s mental health.
Our increased understanding of gender bias in psychological research has led to recommendations aimed at minimizing such biases and improving the accuracy of studies. Feminist scholars, like Worrell, propose several research criteria to ensure that investigations are non-gender biased. Worrell suggests that women should be studied in their natural settings, where they function, and that researchers should collaborate with participants to explore variables that are personally relevant to them. Additionally, she advocates for studying diverse samples, including variations in age, socio-economic class, and other factors. These recommendations are essential because they encourage a more inclusive approach, where women’s experiences and behaviours are understood within their unique social contexts rather than through male-centred norms. By applying these guidelines, psychological research can reduce gender bias and improve the accuracy of our understanding of both male and female behaviour, ultimately contributing to more equitable and comprehensive findings.
culture bias: what is culture bias?
this is the tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions.
culture bias: universiality and culture bias
critics suggest that mainstream psychology has ignored culture as an important influence on behaviour and has therefore assumed that research conducted on samples in Western cultures can be applied all over the world.
culture bias: what are the 2 types of culture bias?
ethnocentrism
cultural relativism
culture bias: what is ethnocentrism and give an example?
this refers to seeing things from the point of view of our own culture. we take our beliefs, customs, and behaviours as superior and normal. this may lead to prejudice:
alpha bias: own culture is considered better.
beta bias: their world view is the only view. ‘imposed etic’
in Ainsworth’s Strange Situation, secure attachments are characterised by the infant showing moderate separation anxiety when left alone. this led to the misinterpretation of child-rearing practices in other cultures. e.g. german mothers were seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging the independence of the child.
culture bias: what is cultural relativism and give an example?
behaviour cannot be judge properly unless its in the context of the culture from which it originates. when studying in another culture, we need to understand the way that culture sees the world.
alpha bias: we overlook universals
beta bias: minimalist cultural differences.
interactional synchrony is universal, Mead stated that gender differences were due to culture. Men in all culture studies were more aggressive than women.
statistical infrequency in a way of defining abnormality. what may be statistically infrequent in one culture may be statistically frequent in others. e.g. hearing voices in UK compared to Ghana.
culture bias: evaluation
Ethnocentrism, the belief that one’s own culture or ethnicity is superior, can be challenged by the development of Indigenous psychologies that recognize the unique cultural contexts of different groups. One such challenge comes from Afrocentrism, which argues that psychological theories should be centred around African values and experiences rather than applying European-centric models universally. Afrocentrism is grounded in the idea that all black people have ancestral roots in Africa, and therefore, psychological theories should reflect African cultural values, traditions, and worldviews. By rejecting the idea that European values should be applied universally to human behaviour, Afrocentrism highlights how such assumptions can marginalize and devalue those who do not share European backgrounds. As a result, Afrocentric theories have been developed to better represent the psychological needs and realities of people of African descent, offering a more culturally relevant and inclusive perspective. This approach challenges ethnocentric views and promotes a broader, more diverse understanding of human behaviour, encouraging the development of psychological theories that are specific and applicable to various cultural contexts around the world.
Bias in research methods can lead to cultural bias, as psychological studies often fail to include participants from diverse cultural backgrounds. One major issue is that research in psychology disproportionately focuses on participants from Western, often American, cultures, limiting the generalizability of findings. Smith and Bond found that European textbooks on social psychology contained 66% of studies conducted in the United States, while only 2% of studies were from non-European or non-American sources. Additionally, Sears discovered that many psychological studies rely heavily on undergraduate participants, most of whom are psychology students, often from Western cultures. This suggests that the research base is heavily skewed toward Western perspectives, making it unrepresentative of global populations. As a result, psychological findings may not accurately reflect the experiences, behaviours, or values of people from diverse cultural backgrounds. To address this cultural bias, researchers must include more diverse participants from various cultural groups, ensuring that psychological theories and findings are more inclusive and applicable on a global scale.
freewill and determinism debate
the freewill/determinism debate is the consideration of whether our behaviour is within our conscious control or governed by internal/external factors.
freewill and determism: what is freewill?
freewill is when an individual is capable of self-determiniation, we have an active role in controlling our behaviour. we are free to choose and arent acting in response to internal or external factors. The humanistic approach argues self-determination is a necessary part of human behaviour as it allows us to take responsibility for our actions, and have personal growth.
freewill and determinism: what is determinism?
determinism believes that ‘freewill is merely an illusion’ and that our behaviour is dictated by internal and external forces that we have no control over and as a result, our behaviour can be predicted. there are 2 types of determinism:
hard determinism: the view that all behaviour can be predicted and there is no freewill.
soft determinism: allows some element of free will, some things are dictated by other forces, but some things aren’t.
freewill and determinism: types of determinism in psychology and give an example
biological: research into the human genome produces evidence of genetics influencing our behaviour. our behaviours and physical characteristics are determined by our genes. E.g. intelligence research has identified a particular gene in people who are classified as high in intelligence.
environmental: behaviourists believe that all behaviour is caused through conditioning. our behaviour is shaped by environmental events and agents of socialisation: parents, teachers, etc. e.g. development of phobias, the development of attachments
psychic: Freud believed freewill to be an allusion; behaviour is due to biological drives and instincts and we are driven by unconscious thoughts. e.g. Freud’s theory of personality is a mix of innate drive and early experiences. behaviour is driven by the libido, focusing on the erogenous zones. when a child becomes frustrated and fixated on that zone, it dominates their adult personality.
freewill and determinism: scientific determinism and the emphasis on casual explanations
science indicates that every event in the universe has a cause which can be explained using general laws. lab experiments allows researchers to stimulate the conditions of the test tube, and remove all other extrenous variables in an attempt to control and predict human behaviour.
determinism requires causation and with causation comes determinism. if we can empirically test and see this is the case, we have found a casual relationship. however, it is rare that X causes Y in 100% of cases, meaning something else must also have an influence (freewill).
freewill and determinism: freewill evaluation
Skinner’s claim that free will is an illusion suggests that human behaviour is determined by past reinforcement experiences, not an autonomous choice. Skinner, a behaviourist, argued that individuals’ actions are shaped by external stimuli and reinforcement, rather than an inherent ability to make free choices. He emphasized that all behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment, implying that free will does not truly exist. This perspective is further complicated when considering cultural influences on the concept of free will. In individualistic societies, self-determination is often seen as a core value, where individuals are believed to make choices based on personal desires. However, in collectivist societies, behaviour tends to be directed by group needs, indicating that free will might not hold the same significance in different cultural contexts. This suggests that free will could be more of a social construct rather than a universal human trait. Ultimately, Skinner’s view, combined with the cultural argument, challenges the universality of free will, suggesting that it may not be a ‘real’ concept but instead shaped by both environmental factors and societal norms.
Research on free will, such as Libet’s experiment, has suggested that our conscious awareness of actions may not be the true initiator of those actions, challenging the notion of free will.
In Libet’s famous experiment, he measured brain activity related to motor movement when participants were asked to move their finger at will. He found that the brain’s motor areas became active before the participants were consciously aware of their intention to move, which seemed to suggest that the brain initiated the movement before the individual’s conscious decision. This finding raises questions about the role of conscious awareness in voluntary actions. However, some researchers have critiqued Libet’s conclusion, suggesting that the brain activity detected prior to movement may not reflect the initiation of the movement itself, but rather a “readiness to act.” This distinction implies that while brain activity precedes conscious awareness, it does not necessarily negate the possibility of free will; it could merely indicate that the brain prepares for action before the individual consciously decides to execute it. While Libet’s research challenges the traditional view of free will, alternative interpretations of the brain activity suggest that there may still be room for conscious intention to play a role, highlighting the complexity of the free will debate.
freewill and determinism: determinism evaluation
The idea that biological and environmental determinism alone cannot fully explain human behaviour is supported by studies on identical twins, suggesting that an interactionist approach may offer a more accurate explanation. Studies comparing identical twins have shown high concordance rates for intelligence, with a reported 80% concordance, and 48% for schizophrenia. This means that if one twin has schizophrenia, there is a 48% chance that the other twin will develop it, indicating a genetic influence. However, these figures also demonstrate that genetics alone do not determine the development of schizophrenia, as the concordance rate is far from 100%. The fact that the concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical twins is only 48% suggests that environmental factors also play a significant role in the development of the disorder. This finding implies that both biological and environmental factors contribute to human behavior, rather than one being the sole cause. The interactionist approach, which considers the influence of both genes and environment, better reflects the complexity of human behaviour and development. Therefore, rather than adopting a purely deterministic view, an interactionist approach that integrates both biological and environmental influences provides a more comprehensive and realistic understanding of human behaviour.
While physical sciences often adhere to determinism, applying this to human behaviour oversimplifies the complexity of psychological processes and is unrealistic. In the physical sciences, it is often assumed that events are determined by prior causes, but even there, many relationships are understood to be probabilistic rather than strictly deterministic. In other words, while certain factors can increase the likelihood of an event occurring, they do not guarantee a specific outcome.
This probabilistic nature of cause-and-effect is particularly relevant in psychology, where human behaviour is influenced by a range of variables, including cognition, emotion, and environment. Unlike non-human animals, whose behaviour tends to be more rigid and determined by instinct, human behaviour is far more complex and flexible, shaped by social, cultural, and personal factors. Trying to apply a deterministic formula to human behaviour oversimplifies these influences and ignores the individuality and adaptability of humans. Therefore, while determinism may work in physical sciences, it is unrealistic and inadequate as an approach to understanding the fluid and multifaceted nature of humanbehaviourr in psychological research.
the nature/nurture debate: what is it?
this debate in psychology is concerned with the extent to which particular aspects of behaviour are a product of inherited (genetic) or acquired (learning) characteristics.
nature is influenced by genetic inheritance and other biological factors (neural). it may be studied with the use of twin, adoption, or family studies.
nurture is the influence of external factors after contraception, and behaviour is a result of learning.
the nature/nurture debate evaluation
Nature and nurture cannot be separated; they both contribute to our development. For example, phenylketonuria is an inherited condition that prevents an amino acid from being metabolised, resulting in brain damage. However, if detected at birth, the child can have a diet of phenylalanine. Therefore, this condition is nature (genetic) but can be controlled through nurture (environment), both are contributing factors. this therefore stresses the importance of the interactions approach, understanding the importance of both. the diathesis-stress model allows us to understand nature/nurture as it explains how an individual’s nature is only expressed in certain aspects of nurture.
holism and reductionism: what is reductionism?
reductionism is the belief that behaviour is best explained by breaking down a complex phenomenon into more simple components. it believes that complex phenomena are best understood in terms of simpler levels of explanation.
holism and reductionism: what is biological reductionism with an example?
Biological psychology reduces behaviour to the actions of neurons, neurotransmitters, hormones, genetics, etc. By doing so, we gain a greater understanding of how components affect us.
example: schizophrenia can be caused by excessive activity of dopamine. typical antipsychotics block the neurotransmitter from binding to D2 receptors.
holism and reductionism: what is environmental reductionism with an example?
Behaviorists suggest that all behaviour can be explained through stimulus-response links. behaviour is reduced to a simple relationship between behaviour and events in the environment. We learn through experience.
For example, the complex formation of attachments occurs when mum provides food, acts as a reward, and reduces discomfort. As she rewards the infant, attachment occurs.
holism and reductionism: what is levels of explanation?
the reducttionist approach in psychology suggests there are different ways of viewing a phenomenon. this is based on levels which go from the highest level, middle to lower-level explanations. any behaviour can be explained by all 3 levels, each becomes more reductionist than the other. for example, OCD and memory can be explained at each level.
OCD:
socio-cultural: repetitive handwashing is irrational.
psychological: experiencing obsessive thoughts
Biological: hypersensitivity at the basal ganglia.
Memory:
socio-cultural: cultural expectations affect what we remember
psychological: episodic memories
biological: areas of the brain where memories are stored (hippocampus, temporal lobe) and neurotransmitters are involved in forming memories.
holism and reductionism: reductionism evaluation
reductionism is very scientific in nature as it allows human nature to be studied effectively using experiments. this is because behaviour is broken down so variables can be operationalised. this allows experiments and observations to be carried out. therefore, reductionism in psychology increases the scientific credibility of the subject and brings it in line with the hard sciences.
however, the results of highly controlled lab studies are often questionable in terms of their ecological validity. it can be argued that the reductionist approach oversimplifies complex phenomena. it fails to account for all factors that contribute towards a behaviour. for example, does Milgram’s research fully explain why people obey? consequently, just focusing on lower-level explanations such as biological and behavioural may result in other important factors being ignored, resulting in treatments not being used.
holism and reductionism: what is holism?
holism is the idea that the an individual’s behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated system and not simplified by looking at separate parts. human behaviour can only be understood as a whole entity. it is based on Gestalt principles that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts.
holism and reductionism: Kohler-Insight learning
1925 - hungry chimpanzees were set a puzzle. a banana and a stick were placed outside the cage. the banana was out of reach, but the stick was in reach. the chimp tried to grab the banana but failed. it paused and had a ‘eureka’ moment. soon after, it grabbed the stick and used it to get to the banana.
Insight learning can only occur when all the elements of a problem (arm, stick, banana, distance) and their interrelationship are understood as a meaningful whole.
holism and reductionism: holism evaluation
certain social behaviour can only be understood when explained in a group context e.g. Zimbardo’s conformity to social roles and the deindividuation of prisoners and guards cannot be studied just by looking at the individual. it is how they interact with each other as a whole that’s important.
research into holism tends to be vague and speculative, they can’t be rigorously tested. if we consider a number several different factors as a cause for behaviour, then it is difficult to identify the relative contribution of each.
idiographic and nonthetic approaches: what is the idiographic approach?
this is an approach which the research focuses more on the individual as a way of understanding behaviour, rather than trying to formulate general laws of behaviour. it is associated with methods that produce qualitative data such as case studies and unstructured interviews.
idiographic and nonthetic approaches: examples of the idiographic approach
Humanistic: Rogers and Maslow adopted a phenomenological approach to the study of humans, and were only interested in documenting the conscious experience of the individual or the self. they wanted to investigate unique experiences, rather than producing general laws of behaviour.
Freud: used case studies to understand patient behaviour e.g. Little Hans. it contained 150 pages including quotes from the father and Freud’s interpretations of events. although he did generalise his findings, these generalisations are based on individuals, so therefore is idiographic.
idiographic and nomothetic approaches: idiographic approach evaluation
the idiographic approach may be criticised as lacking empirical evidence. the focus on the uniqueness of the individual means it is unable to produce general laws of behaviour or predict human behaviour. it also tends to seek in-depth data collection and as a result, utilitises qualitative methods of study such as self-report studies. the analysis of such research is subjective and open to interpretation by the researcher, therefore making it weaker than nomothetic approaches. not only does this decrease the credibility of psychology as a science, but it also has massive restrictions on mental health practices as it limits our ability to create diagnostic criteria and treatments for mental health disorders.
idiographic and nomothetic approaches: what is the nomothetic approach?
the main aim of nomothetic approaches is to produce general laws of human behaviour through studying large groups of people and making generalisations. these provide a ‘benchmark’ through which people can be compared, classified, and measured. the nomothetic approach is associated with methods that are scientific e.g. experimental methods, and so is quantitative.
idiographic and nomothetic approaches: examples of nomothetic approach
Biological: stress response (gender bias) showed how this has mistakenly led to stress responses in men being assumed to apply to women. also, brain scans make generalisations about the localisation of function.
Behaviourists: Skinner studied the responses of rats, pigeons etc to develop the laws of learning: classical and operant conditioning. Although research was largely conducted on non-human animals, general laws were sought to apply to humans and non-humans.
idiographic and nomothetic approaches: evaluation of the nomothetic approach
the nomothetic approach has led to the development of diagnostic criteria and classification systems such as the DSM-V that allow the diagnosis of mental health disorders such as schizophrenia and treatments of these disorders such as drug therapies.
the nomothetic approach is viewed as very scientific. it uses experimental, quantitative methods that allow for controlled measurements and are highly replicable, thus increasing the validity and reliability of research findings. the findings are also likely to be generalisable to the masses due to the large sample sizes used and therefore allow for predictions to be made about human behaviour.
ethical implications of research studies and theory: what are ethical implications?
Ethical issues can arise when there is a conflict between psychology’s need to gain valid and valuable research findings and the need to preserve the rights and dignity of the participants. although researchers may have considerable control over the methods they select and how they treat the participants, they have little say in how the research findings are represented in the media, the impact on public policy, and how it may influence our perception of groups in society.
ethical implications of research studies and theory: what is socially sensitive research?
studies that tackle socially sensitive ‘taboo’ topics, such as aspects of race or sexuality, attract a good deal of attention. these are studies that have potential consequences/implications or the PPs or people represented by the research.
ethical implications of research studies and theory: examples of socially sensitive research
Bowlby: proposed that a healthy relationship with the mother is necessary for social, emotional, and cognitive development. he believed early separation between the mother and infant resulted in later maladjustment and an inability to develop healthy relationships. effects: blame placed on mothers, may try less to help children experiencing maternal deprivation.
Humphreys: research into social interactions and homosexual sexual encounters. he posed as a gay man and spoke to PPs. he took their car registration plated, and got the police to run a background check and address checks. he found that gay stereotypes were false. effects: change in negative stereotypes towards gay men. targeting a group of individuals.
Raine: scanned the brains of violent criminals to examine impulse control. found that most PPs had frontal lobe damage and stated the findings would allow for the identification of people with a violent predisposition. he suggested young people should be scanned to help find potential violent criminals. effects: label children as criminals before they’ve done anything wrong.
ethical implications of research studies and theory: ethical issues in socially sensitive research
Sieber and Stanley identified that ethical guidelines produced by the APS referred to social implications of research, but didn’t offer advice on how these ethical issues might be addressed. Their research offered a solution, identifying 4 aspects in the research process at which ethical issues with social consequences may occur:
The research question: research questions can be damaging to certain groups of people. It might appear to add scientific credibility to already existing prejudice.” are there racial differences in IQ?”
Conduct of research and treatment of PPs: the main concern is the confidentiality of information collected. If a PP confesses to a crime, should confidentiality be maintained?
The institutional context: research can be managed and funded by private institutions which can misuse or misunderstand the data produced. e.g. All Trial Campaign - some pharmaceutical companies have been accused of publication bias - only publish the data that show it works, not data that may damage their sales.
Interpretation and application of findings: research findings may be used for other purposes than what they were intended for. IQ tests were used to try and demonstrate the inferiority of certain groups.
