Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

A LEVEL PSYCH EXAMS > Psychopathology > Flashcards

Psychopathology Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
Psychology 101 flashcards GRE® Psychology flashcards
1
Q

Define statistical infrequency and give an example

A
  • Any behaviour that is different or rare is ABNORMAL, i.e. a statistical infrequency
  • The average IQ is 100, with most people having an IQ between 85 and 115
  • Only 2% have an IQ below 70. Those people with an IQ below are statistically abnormal and are diagnosed with intellectual disability disorder
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Define deviation from social norms and give an example

A
  • When a person behaves in a way that is different from how they are expected to behave, they may be labelled as abnormal
  • Society makes collective judgements about “correct” behaviours in particular circumstances
  • One important symptom of ANTI-SOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER is the failure to conform to “lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour”
  • As such, a psychopath is abnormal because they deviate from social norms or standards : they generally lack empathy
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Statistical infrequency has real world applications. How is this a strength?

A
  • Statistical infrequency is useful in diagnosis, e.g. intellectual disability disorder because this requires an IQ in the bottom 2%
  • It’s also helpful in assessing a range of conditions, e.g. the BDI assess depression, only 5% of people score 30+ ( = severe depression)
  • This suggests that statistical infrequency is useful in diagnostic and assessment processes
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Unusual characteristics can also be positive. How is this a weakness of statistical infrequency?

A
  • If very few people display a characteristic, then the behaviour is statistically infrequent but doesn’t mean we would call them abnormal
  • IQ scores above 130 are just as unusual as those below 70, but not regarded as undesirable or needing treatment
  • This means that, although statistical infrequency can be part of defining abnormality, it can never be its sole basis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Discuss how the benefits vs problems of statistical infrequency is a weakness

A
  • When someone is living a happy and fulfilled life, there is no benefit to labelling them as abnormal
  • HOWEVER, the label of abnormality, e.g. intellectual disability disorder, might carry a social stigma
  • This means that labelling someone abnormal just because they are statistically unusual is likely to do more harm than good
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Deviation from social norms has real world applications. How is this a strength?

A
  • Deviation from social norms is useful in the diagnosis of APD because this requires failure to conform to ethical standards
  • Deviation from social norms is also helpful in diagnosing schizotypal personality disorder (SPD), which involves “strange” beliefs and behaviour
  • This means that deviation from social norms is useful in psychiatric diagnosis
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Social norms are situationally and culturally relative. How is this a weakness of deviation from social norms?

A
  • A person from one culture may label someone from another culture as abnormal using their standards rather than the other person’s standards
  • For example, hearing voices is socially acceptable in some cultures but would be seen as a sign of abnormality in the UK
  • This means it’s difficult to judge deviation from social norms from one context to another
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Reliance on deviation from social norms can lead to human rights abuses. How is this a weakness?

A
  • Reliance on deviation from social norms to understand abnormality can lead to abuse of human rights, e.g. nymphomania to control female behaviour
  • HOWEVER, we need to be able to use deviation from social norms to diagnose conditions, e.g. APD
  • This suggests that, overall, the use of deviation from social norms to define abnormality may do more harm than good because of the potential for abuse
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Outline the criteria for failure to function adequately

A
  • Unable to deal with the demands of everyday life
  • For example, not being able to maintain basic standards of nutrition and hygiene, hold down a job or maintain relationships
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Describe Rosenhan and Seligman’s further signs of failure to cope

A
  • People no longer conform to interpersonal rules, e.g. maintaining personal space
  • People experience severe personal distress
  • People behave in an irrational or dangerous way
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Outline an example of failure to function adequately

A
  • INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY DISORDER
  • Having a very low IQ is a statistical infrequency, but diagnosis wouldn’t be made on this basis alone
  • There would have to be clear signs that the person wasn’t able to cope with the demands of everyday life
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Outline Jahoda’s 8 criteria for ideal mental health

A
  1. No symptoms or distress
  2. Rational and perceive ourselves accurately
  3. We self-actualise
  4. Cope with stress
  5. Realistic view of the world
  6. Good self-esteem and lack of guilt
  7. Independent of other people
  8. Successfully work, love and enjoy ourselves
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Describe the inevitable overlap between failure to function and deviation from ideal mental health

A
  • Someone’s inability to keep a job may be a sign of their failure to cope with the pressures of work (failure to function)
  • Or as a deviation from the IDEAL OF SUCCESSFULLY WORKING
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Failure to function adequately is a threshold for professional help. How is this a strength?

A
  • In any given year, 25% of us experience symptoms of mental disorder to some degree
  • Most of the time, we can press on but when we cease to function adequately, people seek or are referred for professional help
  • This suggests that the failure to function criterion provides a target treatment and services to those who need them most
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

The definition of failure to function can lead to discrimination or social control. How is this a weakness?

A
  • It’s hard to distinguish between failure to function and a conscious decision to deviate from social norms
  • For example, people may choose to live off-grid as part of an alternative lifestyle choice or take part in high risk leisure activities
  • This means that people who make unusual choices can be labelled abnormal and their freedom of choice is restricted
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Failure to function can be normal. How is this a weakness?

A
  • In some circumstances, most of us can’t cope, e.g. bereavement. It’s unfair to give someone a label for reacting normally to difficult circumstances
  • HOWEVER, failure to function is real regardless of the circumstances. A person may need professional help to adjust to bereavement
  • This implies that it’s hard to know when to base a judgement of abnormality on failure to function
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

The ideal mental health approach is comprehensive. How is this a strength?

A
  • Ideal mental health includes a range of criteria for mental health. It covers most of the reasons why we might need help with mental health
  • This means that mental health can be discussed meaningfully with a range of professionals, e.g. psychiatrist or CBT therapy
  • Therefore, ideal mental health provides a checklist against which we can assess ourselves and others
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

The definition of ideal mental health may be culture bound. How is this a weakness?

A
  • Some criteria for ideal mental health are limited to the USA and Western Europe, e.g. self-actualisation is not recognised in most of the world
  • Even in Western Europe, there are variations in the value placed on independence (high in Germany, low in Italy)
  • This means that it’s very difficult to apply the concept of ideal mental health from one culture to another
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health has extremely high standards. How is this a weakness?

A
  • Few of us attain all Jahoda’s criteria for mental health, and none of us maintain them for long. An impossible set of standards can be disheartening
  • HOWEVER, having such a comprehensive criteria for mental health might be of value to someone wanting to improve their mental health
  • This suggests that a comprehensive criteria for ideal mental health may be helpful for some, but not others
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Using Mowrer’s two process model, outline the behavioural approach to explaining phobias

A
  • CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - UCS triggers a FEAR response, NS is associated with the UCS, NS becomes a CS producing fear, which is now the CR
  • OPERANT CONDITIONING - negative reinforcement maintains phobia. When a person with a phobia avoids a phobic stimulus, they escape the anxiety that would’ve been experienced. This reduction in fear reinforces the avoidant behaviour and the phobia is maintained
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Mowrer’s two process model has real world applications. How is this a strength?

A
  • The idea that phobias are maintained by avoidance is important in explaining why people with phobias benefit from exposure therapies, e.g. SD
  • Once avoidant behaviour is prevented, it ceases to be reinforced by the reduction of anxiety. Avoidance therefore declines
  • This shows the value of the two process approach because it identifies a means of treating phobias
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

The two process model is unable to explain cognitive aspects of phobias. How is this a weakness?

A
  • Behavioural explanations like the two process model are geared towards explaining behaviour
  • HOWEVER, we know that phobias also have a significant cognitive component, e.g. people hold irrational beliefs about the phobic stimulus
  • This means that the two process model does not fully explain the symptoms of phobias
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

There is evidence linking phobias to bad experiences. How is this a strength of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias?

A
  • De Jongh et al. found that 73% of dental phobics had experienced trauma (mostly involving dentistry), this is evidence of links between bad experiences and phobias
  • Further support came from the control group of people with low dental anxiety, where only 21% had experienced a traumatic event
  • This suggests that the association between stimulus and a UCR does lead to a phobia
24
Q

Not all phobias appear following a bad experience. How is this a weakness of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias?

A
  • Snake phobias still occur in populations where very few people have any experience of snakes
  • Also, not all frightening experiences lead to phobias
  • This suggests that behavioural theories probably do not provide an explanation for all cases of phobias
25
Q

How is learning and evolution a weakness of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias?

A
  • The two process model provides a credible explanation for how a person might develop and maintain a particular phobia
  • HOWEVER, preparedness is an alternative explanation. This is the tendency to develop phobias for things that presented a danger in our evolutionary past (e.g. snakes and the dark)
  • This means that the two process model doesn’t explain some important properties of phobias
26
Q

Outline systematic desensitisation (SD)

A
  • Gradually reduce anxiety through COUNTER-CONDITIONING
  • Phobic stimulus is paired with relaxation and this becomes the new CR
  • RECIPROCAL INHIBITION - not possible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time, so one emotion prevents the other
  • Client and therapist design an ANXIETY HIERARCHY - fearful stimuli arranged in order from least to most frightening
  • Client taught relaxation techniques such as deep breathing and/or meditation
  • Person then works through the anxiety hierarchy. At each level, the client is exposed to the phobic stimulus in a relaxed state.
  • This takes place over several sessions starting at the bottom of the hierarchy. Treatment is successful when the person can stay relaxed in high-anxiety situations
27
Q

Outline flooding

A
  • Flooding involves exposing a person with a phobia with the phobic object without a gradual buildup
  • Without the option of avoidant behaviour, the person quickly learns that the phobic object is harmless through the exhaustion of their fear response. This is known as EXTINCTION
  • Flooding is not unethical but it is unpleasant experience so it’s important that people being treated give informed consent
28
Q

According to Gilroy, there is evidence of effectiveness for SD. How is this a strength?

A
  • Gilroy et al. followed up 42 people who had SD for arachnophobia. At follow-up, the SD group were less fearful than the control group
  • In a recent review, Wechsler concluded that SD is effective for specific phobias, social phobias and agoraphobia
  • This means that SD is likely to be helpful for people with phobias
29
Q

SD is useful for people with learning disabilities. How is this a strength?

A
  • Main alternatives to SD are unsuitable for people with learning disabilities, e.g. cognitive therapies require a high level of rational thought and flooding is distressing
  • SD does not require understanding or engagement on a cognitive level and is not a traumatic experience
  • This suggests that SD is often the most appropriate treatment for some people
30
Q

Discuss SD in virtual reality

A
  • The exposure part of SD can be done in VR which avoids dangerous situations, e.g. heights and is cost-effective
  • HOWEVER, VR exposure may be less effective than real exposure for social phobias because it lacks realism
  • This means that SD using VR is sometimes effective, but not always appropriate
31
Q

Flooding is cost effective. How is this a strength?

A
  • Flooding can work in as little as one session
  • Even with a longer session, this makes flooding more cost effective than alternatives
  • This means that more people can be treated at the same cost by flooding than by SD or other therapies
32
Q

Flooding is traumatic. How is this a weakness?

A
  • Schumacher found that both participants and therapists rated flooding as more stressful than SD
  • As such, there are ethical concerns about knowingly causing stress (offset by informed consent) and the traumatic nature of flooding also leads to higher attrition (dropout) rates than for SD
  • This suggests that, overall, therapists may avoid using this treatment
33
Q

Discuss symptom substitution as an evaluation point for the behavioural approach to treating phobias

A
  • Behavioural therapies don’t treat causes so symptoms reappear, e.g. woman with death phobia which turned into a fear of criticism
  • HOWEVER, the only evidence for symptom substitution comes in the form of case studies which may not generalise to all cases and phobias
  • This means that symptom substitution is largely a theoretical idea and there is only relatively poor empirical evidence to support
34
Q

Describe the role candidate genes, e.g. 5HT1-D, play in explaining OCD

A
  • Researchers have identified specific genes which create a vulnerability for OCD, called candidate genes
  • SEROTONIN genes, e.g. 5HT1-D beta, are implicated in the transmission of serotonin across synapses
  • DOPAMINE genes are also implicated in OCD and may regulate mood
  • Both dopamine and serotonin are NEUROTRANSMITTERS
35
Q

Describe how OCD is polygenic

A
  • OCD is not caused by one single genes, but several genes are involved
  • Taylor found evidence that up to 230 different genes may be involved in OCD
36
Q

Give the genetic explanation as to how there are different types of OCD

A
  • One group of genes may cause OCD in one person, but a different set of genes may cause the disorder in another person - known as AETIOLOGICALLY HETEROGENOUS
  • There is also evidence that different types of OCD may be the result of particular genetic variations, e.g. hoarding disorder and religious obsession
37
Q

Give the neural explanation as to why low levels of serotonin lowers mood

A
  • Neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another
  • For example, if a person has low levels of serotonin, then normal transmission of mood-relevant information doesn’t take place and mood is affected
38
Q

Describe how, in some cases of OCD, decision-making systems in the frontal lobes are impaired

A
  • Some cases of OCD, particularly HOARDING DISORDER, seem to be associated with impaired decision-making
  • This in turn may be associated with abnormal functioning of the lateral frontal lobes
  • The frontal lobes are responsible for logical thinking and making decisions
39
Q

How does the left parahippocampal gyrus function in OCD?

A

There is evidence to suggest that the left parahippocampal gyrus, associated with processing UNPLEASANT emotions, functions ABNORMALLY in OCD

40
Q

There is evidence for the genetic explanation of OCD. How is this a strength of the biological approach for explaining OCD?

A
  • Nestadt et al. reviewed twin studies and found that 68% of identical twins (MZ) shared OCD, as opposed to 31% of non-identical twins (DZ)
  • Marini and Stebnicki found that a person with a family member with OCD is around 4 times more likely to develop it than someone without
  • This suggests that people who are genetically similar are more likely to share OCD, supporting a role for genetic vulnerability
41
Q

How is the existence of environmental risk factors a weakness of the biological approach for explaining OCD?

A
  • Genetic variation affects vulnerability to OCD, but there are also environmental risk factors that trigger or increase the risk of OCD
  • Cromer et al. found in one sample, over half of people with OCD experienced a TRAUMATIC EVENT. OCD severity correlated positively with number of traumas
  • This implies that genetic vulnerability only provides a partial explanation for OCD
42
Q

How are animal studies a weakness of the biological approach to explaining OCD?

A
  • Evidence from animal studies show particular genes are associated with repetitive behaviours in other species (e.g. mice, Ahmari)
  • HOWEVER, the human mind is more complex, so it may be impossible to generalise from animal repetitive behaviours to human OCD
  • This means that animal studies of candidate genes are probably irrelevant to understanding OCD
43
Q

There is evidence for the neural model of OCD. How is this a strength of the biological approach to explaining OCD?

A
  • Antidepressants that work on serotonin reduce OCD symptoms. This suggests that serotonin may be involved in OCD
  • Also, OCD symptoms form part of conditions that are known to be biological in origin, e.g. Parkinson’s disease (Nestadt)
  • This suggests that biological factors (e.g. serotonin and processes underlying Parkinson’s) are likely to be involved in OCD
44
Q

There is no unique neural system. How is this a weakness of the biological approach to explaining OCD?

A
  • Many people with OCD also experience depression
  • It could be that serotonin activity is disrupted in many people with OCD because they are depressed as well
  • This means that serotonin may not be relevant to OCD symptoms
45
Q

How is correlation and causality a weakness of the biological approach to explaining OCD?

A
  • Some neural systems don’t work normally in people with OCD. The biological model suggests this is explained by brain dysfunction causing the OCD
  • HOWEVER, this is just a correlation which doesn’t necessarily indicate a causal relationship. OCD or depression might cause the abnormal brain function
  • This means that there is a lack of strong evidence for a neural basis to OCD though correlations may lead us to cause
46
Q

Describe the role of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) in treating OCD

A
  • SSRIs prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin in the brain
  • This increases its levels in the synapse and thus serotonin continues to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron
  • This compensates for whatever is wrong with the serotonin system in OCD
47
Q

Outline the typical dosage of fluoxetine (an SSRI) for treating OCD

A
  • A typical dose is 20mg although this may be increased if it’s not benefitting the person
  • It takes 3-4 months of daily use for SSRIs to impact upon symptoms
  • Dose can be increased (e.g. 60mg a day) if this is appropriate
48
Q

Describe how combining SSRIs and CBT can help treat OCD

A
  • Drugs are often used alongside CBT to treat OCD
  • The drugs reduce a person’s emotional symptoms, such as feeling anxious or depressed
  • This means they can engage more effectively with CBT
49
Q

Describe the role of tricyclics (alternatives to SSRIs) in treating OCD

A
  • Tricyclics (older type of antidepressant) are sometimes used, such as clomipramine
  • These have the same effect on the serotonin system as SSRIs, but the side-effects can be more severe
50
Q

Describe the role SNRIs (alternatives to SSRIs) in treating OCD

A
  • In the last 5 years, a different class of antidepressant drugs called Serotonin Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs) have also been used to treat OCD
  • Like tricyclics, these are a second line of defence for people who don’t respond to SSRIs
  • SNRIs increase levels of serotonin and NORADRENALINE
51
Q

There is evidence for the effectiveness of drug therapy. How is this a strength of the biological approach to treating OCD?

A
  • Soomro et al. reviewed 17 studies of SSRIs for the treatment of OCD. All 17 studies showed better outcomes following SSRIs than placebos
  • Typically, OCD symptoms reduce for 70% of people taking SSRIs
  • This suggests that drugs can be of help to most people with OCD
52
Q

Drug therapy may not be the most effective treatment. How is this a weakness for the biological approach for treating OCD?

A
  • Although drug treatments may be better than placebos, they may not be the most effective treatments
  • Cognitive and behavioural (exposure) therapies may be more effective than SSRIs in the treatment of OCD (Skapinakis et al.)
  • This means that drugs may not be the optimum treatment for OCD
53
Q

Drugs are cost-effective and non-disruptive. How is this a strength of the biological approach to treating OCD?

A
  • A strength of drug treatments for psychological disorders in general is that they are cheap compared to psychological treatments. Using drugs to treat OCD is therefore good value for the NHS
  • As compared to psychological therapies, SSRIs are also non-disruptive to people’s lives. If you wish you can simply take drugs until your symptoms decline rather than spending time going to therapy
  • This means that many doctors and people with OCD prefer drug treatments
54
Q

Drugs can have serious side-effects. How is this a weakness of the biological approach to treating OCD?

A
  • A minority of people taking SSRIs get no benefit. Some people also experience side-effects, e.g. indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex drive
  • For those taking clomipramine, side-effects are more common and can be more serious. More than 1 in 10 people experience erection problems and weight gain. 1 in 100 become aggressive
  • This means that people’s quality of life is poor and the outcome is they may stop taking the drugs altogether, reducing the effectiveness of the treatment
55
Q

Discuss the evaluation point that there is biased evidence for the biological approach to treating OCD

A
  • Some psychologists believe that the evidence for effectiveness is biased because of drug company sponsorship
  • HOWEVER, the best evidence available is supportive of the usefulness of drugs for OCD, and evidence for psychological therapies is biased too
  • This suggests that as far as we know, drugs are helpful for treating OCD, so it may be preferable to continue using them

A LEVEL PSYCH EXAMS (11 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions