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A LEVEL PSYCH EXAMS > Psychopathology > Flashcards

Psychopathology Flashcards

1
Q

Define statistical infrequency and give an example

A
  • Any behaviour that is different or rare is ABNORMAL, i.e. a statistical infrequency
  • The average IQ is 100, with most people having an IQ between 85 and 115
  • Only 2% have an IQ below 70. Those people with an IQ below are statistically abnormal and are diagnosed with intellectual disability disorder
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2
Q

Define deviation from social norms and give an example

A
  • When a person behaves in a way that is different from how they are expected to behave, they may be labelled as abnormal
  • Society makes collective judgements about “correct” behaviours in particular circumstances
  • One important symptom of ANTI-SOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER is the failure to conform to “lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour”
  • As such, a psychopath is abnormal because they deviate from social norms or standards : they generally lack empathy
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3
Q

Statistical infrequency has real world applications. How is this a strength?

A
  • Statistical infrequency is useful in diagnosis, e.g. intellectual disability disorder because this requires an IQ in the bottom 2%
  • It’s also helpful in assessing a range of conditions, e.g. the BDI assess depression, only 5% of people score 30+ ( = severe depression)
  • This suggests that statistical infrequency is useful in diagnostic and assessment processes
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4
Q

Unusual characteristics can also be positive. How is this a weakness of statistical infrequency?

A
  • If very few people display a characteristic, then the behaviour is statistically infrequent but doesn’t mean we would call them abnormal
  • IQ scores above 130 are just as unusual as those below 70, but not regarded as undesirable or needing treatment
  • This means that, although statistical infrequency can be part of defining abnormality, it can never be its sole basis
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5
Q

Discuss how the benefits vs problems of statistical infrequency is a weakness

A
  • When someone is living a happy and fulfilled life, there is no benefit to labelling them as abnormal
  • HOWEVER, the label of abnormality, e.g. intellectual disability disorder, might carry a social stigma
  • This means that labelling someone abnormal just because they are statistically unusual is likely to do more harm than good
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6
Q

Deviation from social norms has real world applications. How is this a strength?

A
  • Deviation from social norms is useful in the diagnosis of APD because this requires failure to conform to ethical standards
  • Deviation from social norms is also helpful in diagnosing schizotypal personality disorder (SPD), which involves “strange” beliefs and behaviour
  • This means that deviation from social norms is useful in psychiatric diagnosis
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7
Q

Social norms are situationally and culturally relative. How is this a weakness of deviation from social norms?

A
  • A person from one culture may label someone from another culture as abnormal using their standards rather than the other person’s standards
  • For example, hearing voices is socially acceptable in some cultures but would be seen as a sign of abnormality in the UK
  • This means it’s difficult to judge deviation from social norms from one context to another
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8
Q

Reliance on deviation from social norms can lead to human rights abuses. How is this a weakness?

A
  • Reliance on deviation from social norms to understand abnormality can lead to abuse of human rights, e.g. nymphomania to control female behaviour
  • HOWEVER, we need to be able to use deviation from social norms to diagnose conditions, e.g. APD
  • This suggests that, overall, the use of deviation from social norms to define abnormality may do more harm than good because of the potential for abuse
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9
Q

Outline the criteria for failure to function adequately

A
  • Unable to deal with the demands of everyday life
  • For example, not being able to maintain basic standards of nutrition and hygiene, hold down a job or maintain relationships
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10
Q

Describe Rosenhan and Seligman’s further signs of failure to cope

A
  • People no longer conform to interpersonal rules, e.g. maintaining personal space
  • People experience severe personal distress
  • People behave in an irrational or dangerous way
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11
Q

Outline an example of failure to function adequately

A
  • INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY DISORDER
  • Having a very low IQ is a statistical infrequency, but diagnosis wouldn’t be made on this basis alone
  • There would have to be clear signs that the person wasn’t able to cope with the demands of everyday life
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12
Q

Outline Jahoda’s 8 criteria for ideal mental health

A
  1. No symptoms or distress
  2. Rational and perceive ourselves accurately
  3. We self-actualise
  4. Cope with stress
  5. Realistic view of the world
  6. Good self-esteem and lack of guilt
  7. Independent of other people
  8. Successfully work, love and enjoy ourselves
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13
Q

Describe the inevitable overlap between failure to function and deviation from ideal mental health

A
  • Someone’s inability to keep a job may be a sign of their failure to cope with the pressures of work (failure to function)
  • Or as a deviation from the IDEAL OF SUCCESSFULLY WORKING
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14
Q

Failure to function adequately is a threshold for professional help. How is this a strength?

A
  • In any given year, 25% of us experience symptoms of mental disorder to some degree
  • Most of the time, we can press on but when we cease to function adequately, people seek or are referred for professional help
  • This suggests that the failure to function criterion provides a target treatment and services to those who need them most
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15
Q

The definition of failure to function can lead to discrimination or social control. How is this a weakness?

A
  • It’s hard to distinguish between failure to function and a conscious decision to deviate from social norms
  • For example, people may choose to live off-grid as part of an alternative lifestyle choice or take part in high risk leisure activities
  • This means that people who make unusual choices can be labelled abnormal and their freedom of choice is restricted
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16
Q

Failure to function can be normal. How is this a weakness?

A
  • In some circumstances, most of us can’t cope, e.g. bereavement. It’s unfair to give someone a label for reacting normally to difficult circumstances
  • HOWEVER, failure to function is real regardless of the circumstances. A person may need professional help to adjust to bereavement
  • This implies that it’s hard to know when to base a judgement of abnormality on failure to function
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17
Q

The ideal mental health approach is comprehensive. How is this a strength?

A
  • Ideal mental health includes a range of criteria for mental health. It covers most of the reasons why we might need help with mental health
  • This means that mental health can be discussed meaningfully with a range of professionals, e.g. psychiatrist or CBT therapy
  • Therefore, ideal mental health provides a checklist against which we can assess ourselves and others
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18
Q

The definition of ideal mental health may be culture bound. How is this a weakness?

A
  • Some criteria for ideal mental health are limited to the USA and Western Europe, e.g. self-actualisation is not recognised in most of the world
  • Even in Western Europe, there are variations in the value placed on independence (high in Germany, low in Italy)
  • This means that it’s very difficult to apply the concept of ideal mental health from one culture to another
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19
Q

Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health has extremely high standards. How is this a weakness?

A
  • Few of us attain all Jahoda’s criteria for mental health, and none of us maintain them for long. An impossible set of standards can be disheartening
  • HOWEVER, having such a comprehensive criteria for mental health might be of value to someone wanting to improve their mental health
  • This suggests that a comprehensive criteria for ideal mental health may be helpful for some, but not others
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20
Q

Using Mowrer’s two process model, outline the behavioural approach to explaining phobias

A
  • CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - UCS triggers a FEAR response, NS is associated with the UCS, NS becomes a CS producing fear, which is now the CR
  • OPERANT CONDITIONING - negative reinforcement maintains phobia. When a person with a phobia avoids a phobic stimulus, they escape the anxiety that would’ve been experienced. This reduction in fear reinforces the avoidant behaviour and the phobia is maintained
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21
Q

Mowrer’s two process model has real world applications. How is this a strength?

A
  • The idea that phobias are maintained by avoidance is important in explaining why people with phobias benefit from exposure therapies, e.g. SD
  • Once avoidant behaviour is prevented, it ceases to be reinforced by the reduction of anxiety. Avoidance therefore declines
  • This shows the value of the two process approach because it identifies a means of treating phobias
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22
Q

The two process model is unable to explain cognitive aspects of phobias. How is this a weakness?

A
  • Behavioural explanations like the two process model are geared towards explaining behaviour
  • HOWEVER, we know that phobias also have a significant cognitive component, e.g. people hold irrational beliefs about the phobic stimulus
  • This means that the two process model does not fully explain the symptoms of phobias
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23
Q

There is evidence linking phobias to bad experiences. How is this a strength of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias?

A
  • De Jongh et al. found that 73% of dental phobics had experienced trauma (mostly involving dentistry), this is evidence of links between bad experiences and phobias
  • Further support came from the control group of people with low dental anxiety, where only 21% had experienced a traumatic event
  • This suggests that the association between stimulus and a UCR does lead to a phobia
24
Q

Not all phobias appear following a bad experience. How is this a weakness of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias?

A
  • Snake phobias still occur in populations where very few people have any experience of snakes
  • Also, not all frightening experiences lead to phobias
  • This suggests that behavioural theories probably do not provide an explanation for all cases of phobias
25
Q

How is learning and evolution a weakness of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias?

A
  • The two process model provides a credible explanation for how a person might develop and maintain a particular phobia
  • HOWEVER, preparedness is an alternative explanation. This is the tendency to develop phobias for things that presented a danger in our evolutionary past (e.g. snakes and the dark)
  • This means that the two process model doesn’t explain some important properties of phobias
26
Q

Outline systematic desensitisation (SD)

A
  • Gradually reduce anxiety through COUNTER-CONDITIONING
  • Phobic stimulus is paired with relaxation and this becomes the new CR
  • RECIPROCAL INHIBITION - not possible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time, so one emotion prevents the other
  • Client and therapist design an ANXIETY HIERARCHY - fearful stimuli arranged in order from least to most frightening
  • Client taught relaxation techniques such as deep breathing and/or meditation
  • Person then works through the anxiety hierarchy. At each level, the client is exposed to the phobic stimulus in a relaxed state.
  • This takes place over several sessions starting at the bottom of the hierarchy. Treatment is successful when the person can stay relaxed in high-anxiety situations
27
Q

Outline flooding

A
  • Flooding involves exposing a person with a phobia with the phobic object without a gradual buildup
  • Without the option of avoidant behaviour, the person quickly learns that the phobic object is harmless through the exhaustion of their fear response. This is known as EXTINCTION
  • Flooding is not unethical but it is unpleasant experience so it’s important that people being treated give informed consent
28
Q

According to Gilroy, there is evidence of effectiveness for SD. How is this a strength?

A
  • Gilroy et al. followed up 42 people who had SD for arachnophobia. At follow-up, the SD group were less fearful than the control group
  • In a recent review, Wechsler concluded that SD is effective for specific phobias, social phobias and agoraphobia
  • This means that SD is likely to be helpful for people with phobias
29
Q

SD is useful for people with learning disabilities. How is this a strength?

A
  • Main alternatives to SD are unsuitable for people with learning disabilities, e.g. cognitive therapies require a high level of rational thought and flooding is distressing
  • SD does not require understanding or engagement on a cognitive level and is not a traumatic experience
  • This suggests that SD is often the most appropriate treatment for some people
30
Q

Discuss SD in virtual reality

A
  • The exposure part of SD can be done in VR which avoids dangerous situations, e.g. heights and is cost-effective
  • HOWEVER, VR exposure may be less effective than real exposure for social phobias because it lacks realism
  • This means that SD using VR is sometimes effective, but not always appropriate
31
Q

Flooding is cost effective. How is this a strength?

A
  • Flooding can work in as little as one session
  • Even with a longer session, this makes flooding more cost effective than alternatives
  • This means that more people can be treated at the same cost by flooding than by SD or other therapies
32
Q

Flooding is traumatic. How is this a weakness?

A
  • Schumacher found that both participants and therapists rated flooding as more stressful than SD
  • As such, there are ethical concerns about knowingly causing stress (offset by informed consent) and the traumatic nature of flooding also leads to higher attrition (dropout) rates than for SD
  • This suggests that, overall, therapists may avoid using this treatment
33
Q

Discuss symptom substitution as an evaluation point for the behavioural approach to treating phobias

A
  • Behavioural therapies don’t treat causes so symptoms reappear, e.g. woman with death phobia which turned into a fear of criticism
  • HOWEVER, the only evidence for symptom substitution comes in the form of case studies which may not generalise to all cases and phobias
  • This means that symptom substitution is largely a theoretical idea and there is only relatively poor empirical evidence to support
34
Q

Describe the role candidate genes, e.g. 5HT1-D, play in explaining OCD

A
  • Researchers have identified specific genes which create a vulnerability for OCD, called candidate genes
  • SEROTONIN genes, e.g. 5HT1-D beta, are implicated in the transmission of serotonin across synapses
  • DOPAMINE genes are also implicated in OCD and may regulate mood
  • Both dopamine and serotonin are NEUROTRANSMITTERS
35
Q

Describe how OCD is polygenic

A
  • OCD is not caused by one single genes, but several genes are involved
  • Taylor found evidence that up to 230 different genes may be involved in OCD
36
Q

Give the genetic explanation as to how there are different types of OCD

A
  • One group of genes may cause OCD in one person, but a different set of genes may cause the disorder in another person - known as AETIOLOGICALLY HETEROGENOUS
  • There is also evidence that different types of OCD may be the result of particular genetic variations, e.g. hoarding disorder and religious obsession
37
Q

Give the neural explanation as to why low levels of serotonin lowers mood

A
  • Neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another
  • For example, if a person has low levels of serotonin, then normal transmission of mood-relevant information doesn’t take place and mood is affected
38
Q

Describe how, in some cases of OCD, decision-making systems in the frontal lobes are impaired

A
  • Some cases of OCD, particularly HOARDING DISORDER, seem to be associated with impaired decision-making
  • This in turn may be associated with abnormal functioning of the lateral frontal lobes
  • The frontal lobes are responsible for logical thinking and making decisions
39
Q

How does the left parahippocampal gyrus function in OCD?

A

There is evidence to suggest that the left parahippocampal gyrus, associated with processing UNPLEASANT emotions, functions ABNORMALLY in OCD

40
Q

There is evidence for the genetic explanation of OCD. How is this a strength of the biological approach for explaining OCD?

A
  • Nestadt et al. reviewed twin studies and found that 68% of identical twins (MZ) shared OCD, as opposed to 31% of non-identical twins (DZ)
  • Marini and Stebnicki found that a person with a family member with OCD is around 4 times more likely to develop it than someone without
  • This suggests that people who are genetically similar are more likely to share OCD, supporting a role for genetic vulnerability
41
Q

How is the existence of environmental risk factors a weakness of the biological approach for explaining OCD?

A
  • Genetic variation affects vulnerability to OCD, but there are also environmental risk factors that trigger or increase the risk of OCD
  • Cromer et al. found in one sample, over half of people with OCD experienced a TRAUMATIC EVENT. OCD severity correlated positively with number of traumas
  • This implies that genetic vulnerability only provides a partial explanation for OCD
42
Q

How are animal studies a weakness of the biological approach to explaining OCD?

A
  • Evidence from animal studies show particular genes are associated with repetitive behaviours in other species (e.g. mice, Ahmari)
  • HOWEVER, the human mind is more complex, so it may be impossible to generalise from animal repetitive behaviours to human OCD
  • This means that animal studies of candidate genes are probably irrelevant to understanding OCD
43
Q

There is evidence for the neural model of OCD. How is this a strength of the biological approach to explaining OCD?

A
  • Antidepressants that work on serotonin reduce OCD symptoms. This suggests that serotonin may be involved in OCD
  • Also, OCD symptoms form part of conditions that are known to be biological in origin, e.g. Parkinson’s disease (Nestadt)
  • This suggests that biological factors (e.g. serotonin and processes underlying Parkinson’s) are likely to be involved in OCD
44
Q

There is no unique neural system. How is this a weakness of the biological approach to explaining OCD?

A
  • Many people with OCD also experience depression
  • It could be that serotonin activity is disrupted in many people with OCD because they are depressed as well
  • This means that serotonin may not be relevant to OCD symptoms
45
Q

How is correlation and causality a weakness of the biological approach to explaining OCD?

A
  • Some neural systems don’t work normally in people with OCD. The biological model suggests this is explained by brain dysfunction causing the OCD
  • HOWEVER, this is just a correlation which doesn’t necessarily indicate a causal relationship. OCD or depression might cause the abnormal brain function
  • This means that there is a lack of strong evidence for a neural basis to OCD though correlations may lead us to cause
46
Q

Describe the role of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) in treating OCD

A
  • SSRIs prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin in the brain
  • This increases its levels in the synapse and thus serotonin continues to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron
  • This compensates for whatever is wrong with the serotonin system in OCD
47
Q

Outline the typical dosage of fluoxetine (an SSRI) for treating OCD

A
  • A typical dose is 20mg although this may be increased if it’s not benefitting the person
  • It takes 3-4 months of daily use for SSRIs to impact upon symptoms
  • Dose can be increased (e.g. 60mg a day) if this is appropriate
48
Q

Describe how combining SSRIs and CBT can help treat OCD

A
  • Drugs are often used alongside CBT to treat OCD
  • The drugs reduce a person’s emotional symptoms, such as feeling anxious or depressed
  • This means they can engage more effectively with CBT
49
Q

Describe the role of tricyclics (alternatives to SSRIs) in treating OCD

A
  • Tricyclics (older type of antidepressant) are sometimes used, such as clomipramine
  • These have the same effect on the serotonin system as SSRIs, but the side-effects can be more severe
50
Q

Describe the role SNRIs (alternatives to SSRIs) in treating OCD

A
  • In the last 5 years, a different class of antidepressant drugs called Serotonin Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs) have also been used to treat OCD
  • Like tricyclics, these are a second line of defence for people who don’t respond to SSRIs
  • SNRIs increase levels of serotonin and NORADRENALINE
51
Q

There is evidence for the effectiveness of drug therapy. How is this a strength of the biological approach to treating OCD?

A
  • Soomro et al. reviewed 17 studies of SSRIs for the treatment of OCD. All 17 studies showed better outcomes following SSRIs than placebos
  • Typically, OCD symptoms reduce for 70% of people taking SSRIs
  • This suggests that drugs can be of help to most people with OCD
52
Q

Drug therapy may not be the most effective treatment. How is this a weakness for the biological approach for treating OCD?

A
  • Although drug treatments may be better than placebos, they may not be the most effective treatments
  • Cognitive and behavioural (exposure) therapies may be more effective than SSRIs in the treatment of OCD (Skapinakis et al.)
  • This means that drugs may not be the optimum treatment for OCD
53
Q

Drugs are cost-effective and non-disruptive. How is this a strength of the biological approach to treating OCD?

A
  • A strength of drug treatments for psychological disorders in general is that they are cheap compared to psychological treatments. Using drugs to treat OCD is therefore good value for the NHS
  • As compared to psychological therapies, SSRIs are also non-disruptive to people’s lives. If you wish you can simply take drugs until your symptoms decline rather than spending time going to therapy
  • This means that many doctors and people with OCD prefer drug treatments
54
Q

Drugs can have serious side-effects. How is this a weakness of the biological approach to treating OCD?

A
  • A minority of people taking SSRIs get no benefit. Some people also experience side-effects, e.g. indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex drive
  • For those taking clomipramine, side-effects are more common and can be more serious. More than 1 in 10 people experience erection problems and weight gain. 1 in 100 become aggressive
  • This means that people’s quality of life is poor and the outcome is they may stop taking the drugs altogether, reducing the effectiveness of the treatment
55
Q

Discuss the evaluation point that there is biased evidence for the biological approach to treating OCD

A
  • Some psychologists believe that the evidence for effectiveness is biased because of drug company sponsorship
  • HOWEVER, the best evidence available is supportive of the usefulness of drugs for OCD, and evidence for psychological therapies is biased too
  • This suggests that as far as we know, drugs are helpful for treating OCD, so it may be preferable to continue using them

A LEVEL PSYCH EXAMS (11 decks)

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