Approaches in Psychology

Question 1

Outline the key features of the behaviourist approach

Answer 1

• Only focusses on observable and measurable behaviour - rejected introspection because of its vague and immeasurable concepts
• Controlled lab studies - tried to maintain control and objectivity in their research
• Used non-human animals as test subjects - behaviourists suggest the learning processes are the same in all species, so animals can replace humans as test subjects

Question 2

Outline classical conditioning through the use of Pavlov’s dogs

Answer 2

Question 3

Outline operant conditioning through Skinner’s research with rats

Answer 3

• Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
• When a rat activated a lever, it was rewarded with a food pellet
• A positive consequence led to a behaviour being repeated (POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT)
• If pressing a lever meant the rat would avoid an electric shock, the behaviour would also be repeated (NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT)

Question 4

Describe the 3 consequences of behaviour

Answer 4

• POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - receiving a reward when behaviour is performed
• NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - avoiding something unpleasant when behaviour is performed
• PUNISHMENT - an unpleasant consequence of behaviour

Positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated. Punishment decreases it

Question 5

Behaviourism uses well-controlled research. How is this a strength of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 5

• Focusses on the careful measurement of observable behaviour within controlled lab settings
• Behaviourists have broken behaviour down into “stimulus → response” units and studied causal relationships
• This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility

Question 6

The behaviourist approach may oversimplify learning. How is this a weakness?

Answer 6

• Ignores important influences on behaviour, e.g. thought
• Other approaches, such as SLT and cognitive, incorporate mental processes
• This suggests learning is more complex than just what we can observe

Question 7

The behaviourist laws of learning have real world application. How is this a strength of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 7

• The principles of conditioning have been applied to a broad range of real world behaviours and problems
• TOKEN ECONOMY SYSTEMS reward appropriate behaviour with tokens that are exchanged for privileges (operant conditioning). Successfully used in prisons and psychiatric wards
• This increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application

Question 8

Behaviourism is a form of environmental determinism. How is this a weakness of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 8

• The approach sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned and ignores any influence that free will may have on behaviour
• Skinner suggested that free will was an illusion. When something happens, we may think “I made the decision to do that”, but our past conditioning determined the outcome
• This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision making processes on behaviour (as suggested by the cognitive approach)

Question 9

How are ethical issues regarding the Skinner box study a weakness of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 9

• Procedures such as the Skinner box allowed behaviourists to maintain a high degree of control over their experimental “subjects”
• HOWEVER, the animals were housed in harsh, cramped conditions and deliberately kept below their natural weight so they were always hungry
• Therefore, there is a question of benefits vs costs - some would argue that there have been enormous benefits (e.g. application to therapy) which offsets the harm the animals experienced

Question 10

Outline the key features of Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Answer 10

• Learning that occurs indirectly - Bandura agreed with the behaviourist approach that learning occurs through experience. HOWEVER, he also proposed that learning occurs in a social context through observation and imitation of others’ behaviour
• Vicarious reinforcement - children and adults observe people’s behaviour and take note of its consequences. Behaviour that is seen to be rewarded is more likely to be copied
• Mediational processes - play a crucial role in learning
• Identification with role models - people are likely to imitate the behaviour of those with whom they identify. Such role models are similar to the observer, attractive and have high status

Question 11

Outline the 4 mediational processes in Social Learning Theory (ARMM)

Answer 11

1. ATTENTION - whether behaviour is noticed
2. RETENTION - whether behaviour is remembered
3. MOTOR REPRODUCTION - being able to do it
4. MOTIVATION - the will to perform the behaviour

Question 12

Outline Bandura’s 1961 Bobo dolls study

Answer 12

• Children watched either :
  
  • An adult behaving AGGRESSIVELY towards a Bobo doll
  • An adult behaving NON-AGGRESSIVELY towards a Bobo doll
• When given their own doll to play with, the children who had seen aggression were much more aggressive towards their doll

Question 13

Outline Bandura and Walters’ 1963 Bobo dolls study

Answer 13

• Children saw videos of an adult who was aggressive towards Bobo dolls and was either :
  
  • REWARDED
  • PUNISHED
  • THERE WAS NO CONSEQUENCE
• When given their own doll, the children who saw the aggression rewarded were much more aggressive themselves, even weeks later

Question 14

What were the conclusions of the Bobo dolls studies?

Answer 14

• Children are likely to imitate acts of violence if they observe these in an adult role model (MORE LIKELY IF ADULT WAS THE SAME GENDER AS THEM)
• Modelling aggressive behaviour is more likely if such behaviour is seen to be rewarded (VICARIOUS REINFORCEMENT)

Question 15

SLT emphasises the importance of cognitive factors. How is this a strength of Social Learning Theory?

Answer 15

• Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer a comprehensive account of human learning on their own because cognitive factors are omitted
• Humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain behaviours
• This suggests that SLT provides a more complete explanation of human learning than the behaviourist approach by recognising the role of MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES

Question 16

According to recent research, SLT makes little effort to reference the biological factors (mirror neurons) involved in learning. How is this a weakness of SLT?

Answer 16

• Recent research suggests that observational learning is controlled by mirror neurons in the brain
• This allows us to empathise with and imitate other people
• This suggests that SLT may make too little effort to reference the influence of biological factors on social learning

Question 17

SLT relies too heavily on evidence from lab studies. How is this a weakness of Social Learning Theory?

Answer 17

• Many of Bandura’s ideas were developed through observation of children’s behaviour in lab settings and this raises the problem of DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS
• The main purpose of a Bobo doll is to hit it. So the children in those studies may have been behaving as they thought was expected
• Aggression was operationalised by seeing HOW the children hit the doll, e.g. punching, pounding, etc.
• Thus, the research may tell us little about how children actually learn about aggression in everyday life

Question 18

SLT has real world applications. How is this a strength of Social Learning Theory?

Answer 18

• Social learning principles can account for how children learn from other people around them, as well as through the media, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted
• This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours, e.g. how children come to understanding their gender roles by imitating role models in the media
• This increases the value of SLT as it can account for real world behaviour

Question 19

How is reciprocal determinism a strength of Social Learning Theory?

Answer 19

• Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism - we are influenced by our environment, but we also exert an influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform
• This element of choice suggests there is some free will in the way we behave (e.g. choosing our friends)
• This is a more realistic and flexible position than is suggested by the behaviourist approach as it recognises the role we play in shaping our own environment

Question 20

What are the 3 elements that make up the mind, according to Freud?

Answer 20

• CONSCIOUS - what we are aware of (tip of the iceberg)
• PRECONSCIOUS - thoughts we may become aware of through dreams and “slips of the tongue”
• UNCONSCIOUS - a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that influence our behaviour

Question 21

Outline the tripartite model for the psychodynamic approach

Answer 21

• ID - PLEASURE PRINCIPLE : primitive part of the personality that demands instant gratification
• EGO - REALITY PRINCIPLE : mediator between Id and Superego
• SUPEREGO - MORALITY PRINCIPLE : internalised sense of right and wrong. Punishes the Ego through guilt. Appears age 5

Question 22

Outline Freud’s 5 psychosexual stages

Answer 22

• ORAL (0-1 y/o) : pleasure focus = mouth, the mother’s breast is the object of desire
• ANAL (1-3 y/o) : pleasure focus = anus, the child gains pleasure from withholding and eliminating faeces
• PHALLIC (3-6 y/o) : pleasure focus = genital area
• LATENCY : earlier conflicts are repressed
• GENITAL (puberty) : sexual desires become conscious

Question 23

Outline the 3 defence mechanisms used by the Ego to reduce anxiety in the psychodynamic approach

Answer 23

• REPRESSION : forcing a distressing memory out of the unconscious mind
• DENIAL : refusing to acknowledge reality
• DISPLACEMENT : transferring feelings from their true source onto a substitute target

Question 24

Freud’s psychodynamic approach introduced psychotherapy. How is this a strength?

Answer 24

• Freud’s psychoanalysis was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically
• Psychoanalysis claims to help clients deal with everyday problems by providing access to their unconscious, using techniques, e.g. dream analysis
• Therefore, psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern-day “talking therapies” (e.g. counselling)

Question 25

Freudian therapy may be inappropriate for clients who have lost touch with reality. How is this a weakness of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 25

• Although psychoanalysis is claimed successful for clients with mild neuroses, it is inappropriate, even harmful, for more serious mental disorder, such as schizophrenia
• Therefore, Freudian therapy (and theory) may not apply to mental disorders where a client has lost touch with reality

Question 26

The psychodynamic approach has explanatory power on the influence of the childhood on adult personality. How is this a strength of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 26

• Freud’s theory is controversial and often bizarre, but it has had influence on Western contemporary thought
• It has been used to explain a wide range of behaviours (moral, mental disorders) and drew attention to the influence of childhood on adult personality
• This suggests that, overall, the psychodynamic approach had had a positive influence on psychology and modern-day thinking

Question 27

The psychodynamic approach includes untestable concepts. How is this a weakness?

Answer 27

• Karl Popper (philosopher of science) argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification, in the sense that it cannot be disproved
• Many of Freud’s concepts, such as the Id or the Oedipus complex, occur at an unconscious level, making them impossible to test
• This means that Freud’s ideas lack scientific rigour, the theory is pseudoscience, rather than real science

Question 28

How is psychic determinism a weakness of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 28

• The psychodynamic approach suggests that much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts - Freud believed there was no such thing as an “accident”
• HOWEVER, few psychologists would accept this view, a it leaves no room for free will beyond early childhood
• This suggests that Freud’s views were too extreme as most people do have a sense of control over their behaviour

Question 29

Outline how the concept of free will is central to the humanistic approach

Answer 29

• Humanistic psychologists reject attempts to establish general principles of human behaviour
• We are all unique, and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience rather than general laws - a person-centred approach

Question 30

Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in the humanistic approach

Answer 30

• The 4 lower levels (deficiency needs) must be met before the individual can achieve self-actualisation (growth need)
• Self-actualisation refers to the innate tendency that each of us has to want to achieve our full potential and become the best we can possibly be

Question 31

Describe the aim of Rogers’ client-centred therapy (congruence)

Answer 31

• Rogers argued that personal growth requires an individual’s concept of self to be CONGRUENT with their ideal self (the person they want to be)
• If too big a gap, the person will experience a state of INCONGRUENCE and self-actualisation isn’t possible

Question 32

Describe how parents who impose conditions of worth on their child may prevent personal growth, according to the humanistic approach

Answer 32

• Issues, e.g. worthlessness and low self-esteem have their roots in childhood and are due to a lack of UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD from our parents
• A parent who sets boundaries on their love for their child (conditions of worth) by claiming “I will only love you if … ” is storing up psychological problems for that child in the future

Question 33

Describe how the humanistic approach has had a lasting impact on counselling psychology

Answer 33

• In Rogers’ client-centred therapy (counselling), an effective therapist should provide the client with 3 things :
  
  • Genuineness
  • Empathy
  • Unconditional positive regard
• The aim is to increase feelings of self-worth and reduce incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self. Rogers’ work transformed psychotherapy
• “Non-directive” counselling techniques are practised, not only in clinical settings, but throughout education, health, social work and industry

Question 34

The humanistic approach is anti-reductionist. How is this a strength?

Answer 34

• Humanistic psychologists reject any attempt to break down behaviour and experience into smaller components
• They advocate HOLISM - the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person (their relationships, past, present and future, etc.)
• This approach may have more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-world context

Question 35

Humanistic psychology has little evidence to support its claims. How is this a weakness of the humanistic approach?

Answer 35

• Unlike behaviourism, humanastic psychology has relatively few concepts that can be reduced to single variables and measured
• This means that humanistic psychology in general is short on empirical evidence to support its claims

Question 36

Humanistic psychology is a positive approach. How is this a strength of the humanistic approach?

Answer 36

• Humanistic psychologists have been praised for promoting a positive image of the human condition - seeing people as in control of their lives and having the freedom to change
• Freud saw human beings as slaves to their past and claimed all of us existed somewhere between “common unhappiness and absolute despair”
• Therefore, humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative

Question 37

The humanistic approach may be guilty of a western cultural bias. How is this a weakness?

Answer 37

• Many humanistic ideas (e.g. self-actualisation) would be more associated with individualist cultures in the West, such as the USA
• Collectivist cultures, e.g. India, which emphasise the needs of the group, may not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology
• Therefore, it’s possible that the approach doesn’t apply universally and is a product of the cultural context that it was developed in

Question 38

Discuss limited application as an evaluation point of the humanistic approach

Answer 38

• Critics argue that, compared to other approaches, humanistic psychology has had limited impact within psychology, or practical application in the real world
• HOWEVER, Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation, particularly in the workplace
• This suggests that the approach does have value, despite the fact that (unlike other approaches), it is resolutely “anti-scientific”