Issues and Debates

Question 1

Outline the free will - determinism debate

Answer 1

Is our behaviour a matter of free will or are we the product of internal and/or external influences?

Question 2

Are most approaches deterministic or do they advocate for free will?

Answer 2

Most approaches in psychology are deterministic but disagree on the causes of human behaviour

Question 3

Define free will

Answer 3

• Self-determining
• We are free to make choices
• We are active agents - have an active role in controlling our own behaviour
• There are biological and environmental influences on our behaviour - but free will implies we can reject them

Question 4

Which approach advocates for free will?

Answer 4

Humanistic approach

Question 5

Define hard determinism (fatalism)

Answer 5

• All human behaviour has a cause, and it should be possible to identify these causes
• No room at all for free will

Question 6

Define soft determinism

Answer 6

All human behaviour has a cause, but people have freedom to make choices within a restricted range of options

Question 7

Outline biological determinism

Answer 7

• The biological approach describes many causes of behaviour, e.g. the influence of the autonomic nervous system on stress or the influence of genes on mental health
• Modern biological psychologists would recognise the mediating influence of the environment on our biological structures (another deterministic influence)
• According to Sam Harris, “free will is an illusion. You are a biochemical puppet.”

Question 8

Outline environmental determinism

Answer 8

• Skinner described free will as “an illusion” and all behaviour as the result of conditioning
• Our experience of “choice” is the sum total of reinforcement contingencies that have acted upon us throughout our lives

Question 9

Outline psychic determinism

Answer 9

• Freud emphasised the influence of biological drives and unconscious conflicts in childhood
• Even something as seemingly random as a “slip of the tongue” can be explained by the unconscious

Question 10

What is one of the basic principles of science in terms of determinism?

Answer 10

• A basic principle of science is that every event has a cause and these can be explained with general laws
• Knowledge of these allows scientists to predict and control events

Question 11

How are lab experiments the best way for psychologists to demonstrate and explain behaviour?

Answer 11

In psychology, the laboratory experiment allows researchers to simulate the conditions of the test tube and remove all other extraneous variables to demonstrate a causal effect

Question 12

Free will has practical value. How is this a strength of free will / weakness of determinism?

Answer 12

• Roberts et al. looked at adolescents who had a strong belief in fatalism - that their lives were “decided” by events out of their control
• They were at greater risk of developing depression. People who exhibit an internal locus of control are more likely to be optimistic
• This suggests that, even if we do not have free will, the fact that we believe we do may have a positive impact on mind and behaviour

Question 13

Evidence from Libet et al. does not support free will, it supports determinism. How is this a strength of determinism / weakness of free will?

Answer 13

• Libet et al. asked participants to randomly flick their wrist and say when they felt the will to move. Brain activity was also measured
• The unconscious brain activity leading up to the conscious decision to move came half a second before the participant’s conscious decision to move
• This may be interpreted as meaning that even our most basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain before we are aware of them

Question 14

Evidence from Libet et al. is not appropriate as a challenge to free will. How is this a weakness of determinism / strength of free will?

Answer 14

• The fact that people consciously became aware of decisions milliseconds after they had begun to enact the decision still means they may have made the decision to act
• Our consciousness of the decision is a “read-out” of our sometimes unconscious decision-making
• This suggests this evidence is not appropriate as a challenge to free will

Question 15

Determinism is inconsistent with responsibility’s role in law. How is this a weakness of determinism / strength of free will?

Answer 15

• The hard determinist stance is not consistent with the way in which our legal system operates. In court, offenders are held responsible for their actions
• The main principle of our legal system is that the defendant exercised their free will in committing the crime
• This suggests that, in the real world, determinist arguments do not work

Question 16

Discuss whether or not we want determinism as an evaluation point of the free will - determinism debate

Answer 16

• Determinism places psychology on equal footing with other more established sciences and has led to valuable real-world applications, e.g. therapies
• HOWEVER, free will has intuitive appeal. Most of us see ourselves as making our own choices rather than being “pushed” by forces we cannot control. Some people (e.g. the child of a criminal parent) prefer to think they are free to self-determine
• This suggests that if psychology wants to position itself alongside the natural sciences, determinist accounts are likely to be preferred. HOWEVER, common sense experience may be better understood by an analysis of free will

Question 17

Define the idiographic approach

Answer 17

Detailed study of one individual or one group to provide in-depth understanding

Question 18

Define the nomothetic approach

Answer 18

Study of larger groups with the aim of discovering norms, universal principles or “laws” of behaviour

Question 19

Outline the idiographic - nomothetic debate

Answer 19

• Debate over which position is preferable for psychology
• The two approaches may both have a place within a scientific study of the person

Question 20

What are the key concepts of the idiographic approach? (3 concepts)

Answer 20

• The number of participants is small, often a single individual / group - research might include others, e.g. family, friends
• The initial focus is about understanding the individual, but generalisations may be made based on findings
• Qualitative research, e.g. individuals with depression might be interviewed, emergent themes identified and conclusions formed - this might help inform mental health professionals determine best practice

Question 21

What are 2 examples of the idiographic approach in psychology? (Rogers and Freud)

Answer 21

• Rogers’ concept of counselling was based on his work as a therapist. His “theory” on the role of UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD in self-development was based on his in-depth study of his clients
• Freud’s explanation of phobia was based on the detailed case study of Little Hans over many years

Question 22

What are the key concepts of the nomothetic approach? (3 concepts)

Answer 22

• General principles of behaviour are developed which are then applied in individual situations, e.g. in therapy
• Quantitative research - hypotheses are formulated, samples of people (or animals) are gathered and data analysed for its statistical significance
• Nomothetic approaches seek to quantify (count) human behaviour

Question 23

What are 2 examples of the nomothetic approach in psychology? (Skinner and Sperry)

Answer 23

• Skinner studied animals to develop the general laws of learning
• Sperry’s split-brain research involved repeated testing and was, in part, the basis for understanding hemispheric lateralisation

Question 24

How is the nomothetic approach objective?

Answer 24

• The nomothetic approach seeks standardised methods of assessing people
• This ensures true replication occurs across samples of behaviour and removes the contaminating influence of bias

Question 25

How is the idiographic approach subjective?

Answer 25

• The idiographic approach tends NOT to believe that objectivity is possible in psychological research
• It is people’s individual experience of their unique context that is important

Question 26

Idiographic and nomothetic approaches work together. How is this a strength?

Answer 26

• The idiographic approach uses in-depth qualitative methods which complements the nomothetic approach by providing detail
• In-depth case studies, e.g. HM (damaged memory) may reveal insights about normal functioning, which contribute to our overall understanding
• This suggests that even though the focus is on fewer individuals, the idiographic approach may help form “scientific” laws of behaviour

Question 27

The idiographic approach is restrictive without the nomothetic approach. How is this a weakness?

Answer 27

• There is no baseline for comparison, also unscientific and subjective
• This suggests that it is difficult to build effective general theories of human behaviour in the complete absence of nomothetic research

Question 28

The idiographic and nomothetic approaches both fit with the aims of science. How is this a strength?

Answer 28

• Nomothetic research (like natural sciences) seeks objectivity through standardisation, control and statistical testing
• Idiographic research also seeks objectivity through triangulation (comparing a range of studies), and reflexivity (researchers examine own biases)
• This suggests that both the nomothetic and idiographic approaches raise psychology’s status as a science

Question 29

The nomothetic approach loses the individual experience. How is this a weakness?

Answer 29

• Nomothetic approach focusses on general laws and may “lose the whole person” within psychology
• For example, knowing about a 1% lifetime risk of schizophrenia says little about having the disorder - which might be useful for therapeutic ideas
• This means, in its search for generalities, the nomothetic approach may sometimes fail to relate to “experience”

Question 30

Discuss whether the idiographic and nomothetic approaches are distinct or complementary as an evaluation point for the idiographic - nomothetic debate

Answer 30

• Each approach is distinct and appropriate for different situations, e.g. Schaffer described general stages of attachment (nomothetic), whereas case studies of extreme neglect highlight subjective experience (idiographic)
• HOWEVER, they may be two ends of a continuum, e.g. when diagnosing personality disorders, clinicians begin with general nomothetic criteria, then focus on the individual unique needs (Millon)
• This suggests that these approaches are not either/or, we can consider the same topic from both perspectives

Question 31

Why do ethical issues arise?

Answer 31

Ethical issues arise because of conflict between the need for valid research findings and preserving the rights of participants

Question 32

What do ethical guidelines do?

Answer 32

• Ethical guidelines protect participants and guide researchers
• Guidelines are also related to the ethical implications (consequences) of research

Question 33

What should psychologists be aware of when conducting socially-sensitive research?

Answer 33

• Psychologists must be aware of the consequences of research for the participants or for the group of people represented by the research
• Some research is more socially sensitive (e.g. studying depression) but even seemingly innocuous research (e.g. long-term memory in a student population) may have consequences (e.g. for exam policy)

Question 34

When should implications of the research be considered?

Answer 34

Consequences should be considered at all stages of the research process

Question 35

Using an example from Kitzinger and Coyle, describe how the phrasing of research questions can influence how the findings are interepreted?

Answer 35

For example, if a research study is looking at “alternative relationships”, this is likely to focus on homosexual relationships and may overlook heterosexual ones because “alternative” suggests alternative to heterosexual relationships (Kitzinger and Coyle)

Question 36

Using the example of domestic violence, describe how psychologists should deal with participants (overcoming ethical issues)

Answer 36

• Participants may worry about an ex-partner finding out what they said and also participants may find the experience of talking about abusive experiences stressful
• Psychologists would need to protect their participants from psychological harm, keep their details confidential and obtain fully informed consent

Question 37

Why do psychologists need to consider in advance how their findings might be used?

Answer 37

• Findings may give scientific credence to prejudices
• For example, the use of early (flawed) IQ tests in America during WWI led to prejudice against Eastern Europeans and lower immigration quota
• The media may be especially interested in sensitive findings, e.g. research on patient in a minimally conscious state who appeared to be responsive

Question 38

Socially sensitive research benefits the group being studied. How is this a strength of ethical implications of research studies?

Answer 38

• The DSM-1 listed homosexuality as a “sociopathic personality disorder” but finally removed it in 1973, as a result of the Kinsey report
• Anonymous interviews with over 5000 men about their sexual behaviour concluded that homosexuality is a normal variant of human sexual behaviour
• This illustrates the importance of researchers tackling topics that are sensitive

Question 39

Socially sensitive research may NOT benefit the group being studied. How is this a weakness of ethical imp;ications of research studies?

Answer 39

• There may be negative consequences that could have been anticipated, e.g. research on the “criminal gene”. Implies that people can’t be held responsible for their wrongdoing
• This suggests that, when researching socially sensitive topics, there is a need for very careful consideration of the possible outcomes and their consequences

Question 40

Policymakers rely on socially sensitive research. How is this a strength of ethical implications of research studies?

Answer 40

• Government needs research when developing social policy related to childcare, education, mental health provision, crime etc. Better to base such policies on scientific research than politically-motivated views
• For example, the ONS (Office for National Statistics) are responsible for collecting, analysing and disseminating objective statistics about the UK’s economy, society and population
• This means that psychologists also have an important role to play in providing high quality research on socially sensitive topics

Question 41

Poor research design may have a long term impact. How is this a weakness of ethical implications of research studies?

Answer 41

• For example, Burt’s research on IQ showed it is genetic, fixed and apparent by age 11. Led to the 11+ exam which meant that not all children had the same educational opportunities
• Research later shown to be based on invented evidence but the system didn’t change and continues in parts of the UK today
• Therefore, any SSR needs to be planned with the greatest care to ensure the findings are valid because of the enduring effects on particular groups of people

Question 42

Discuss whether or not we should be ignoring socially sensitive research as an evaluation point of ethical implications of research studies

Answer 42

• We could avoid SSR, in fact that’s what people seem to be doing. The APA claimed that 95% of non-sensitive proposals are approved, but only 50% of SSR
• HOWEVER, Sieber and Stanley advised that ignoring such topics is irresponsible. Researchers could use a more reflexive approach (as in qualitative research)
• This suggests that SSR can be ethical if researchers’ biases form part of the findings