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A LEVEL PSYCH EXAMS > Biopsychology > Flashcards

Biopsychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the nervous system?

A
  • Specialised network of cells
  • Primary communication system
  • Based on electrical and chemical signals
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2
Q

What are the 2 main functions of the nervous system?

A
  • Collect, process and respond to info in the environment
  • Coordinate the working of organs and cells in the body
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3
Q

Outline the structure of function of the central nervous system (CNS)

A
  • CNS = brain and spinal cord
  • Brain = centre of conscious awareness
  • Brain = 2 hemispheres
  • Spinal cord = extension of brain, responsible for reflex actions
  • Passes messages to and from the brain and connects nerves to the PNS
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4
Q

Outline the structure of function of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A
  • PNS transmits messages via millions of neurons to and from the nervous system
  • PNS = divided into :
    • AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) = vital functions, e.g. breathing, heart rate and stress response
    • SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SNS) = muscle movement and receives info from sensory receptors
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5
Q

How many neurons do we have in the brain?

A
  • 85 billion neurons
  • Children have more neurons than adults
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6
Q

What are the 3 types of neurons?

A
  • Sensory neurons carry messages from the PNS to the CNS. LONG DENDRITES, SHORT AXONS. Located in the PNS in clusters called ganglias
  • Relay neurons connect sensory neurons to motor or other relay neurons. SHORT DENDRITES, SHORT AXONS. 97% of all neurons are relay neurons and most are located in the brain and visual system
  • Motor neurons connect the CNS to muscles and glands. SHORT DENDRITES, LONG AXONS. Cell bodies are in the CNS, but long axons form part of the PNS
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7
Q

Outline the structure of a neuron

A
  • Cell body (soma) includes a nucleus which contains the genetic material of the cell
  • Dendrites are branchlike structures that protrude from the cell body. They receive info and carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons towards the cell body
  • Axon carries electrical impulses away from the cell body down the length of the neuron. ONLY 1 AXON PER NEURON
  • Axon hillock determines if there will be an electrical transmission
  • Terminal buttons at the end of the axon communicate with the next neuron in the chain across the synapse
  • Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin sheath across Schwann cells
  • Myelin sheath is a layer of insulation around the nerve
  • Schwann cells produce the myelin sheath
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8
Q

Outline electrical transmission between neurons

A

When a neuron is in a RESTING STATE, the inside of the cell is NEGATIVELY CHARGED compared to the outside

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9
Q

Describe the firing of a neuron

A
  • When a neuron is activated, the inside of the cell becomes POSITIVELY charged for a split second, causing an action potential to occur
  • This creates an electrical impulse that travels down the axon towards the end of the neuron
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10
Q

Define synapse / synaptic cleft

A

Each neuron is separated from the next by an extremely tiny gap called the synapse / synaptic cleft

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11
Q

Describe chemical transmission

A
  • Signals WITHIN neurons are transmitted ELECTRICALLY
  • Signals BETWEEN neurons are transmitted CHEMICALLY across the synapse
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12
Q

Describe the events that occur at the synapse

A
  • When the electrical impulse reaches the end of the neuron (the presypnatic terminal), it triggers the release of neurotransmitters from tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles
  • Once a neurotransmitter crosses the gap, it’s taken up by a postsynaptic receptor site on the next neuron, so an IMPULSE ONLY EVER TRAVELS IN ONE DIRECTION
  • The chemical message is converted back to an electrical impulse and the process of electrical transmission begins
  • When the electrical impulse reaches the end of the neuron (the presypnatic terminal), it triggers the release of neurotransmitters from tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles
  • Once a neurotransmitter crosses the gap, it’s taken up by a postsynaptic receptor site on the next neuron, so an IMPULSE ONLY EVER TRAVELS IN ONE DIRECTION
  • The chemical message is converted back to an electrical impulse and the process of electrical transmission begins
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13
Q

What are neurotransmitters and how do they work? Give two examples

A
  • Neurotransmitters = chemicals that diffuse across the synapse to the next neuron
  • Each has its own specific molecular structure that fits perfectly into a postsynaptic receptor site, like a lock and key
    • Acetylcholine (ACh) found where a motor neuron meets a muscle, causing muscles to contract
    • Serotonin affects mood and social behaviour, which is why it has been implicated as a cause of depression
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14
Q

Is adrenaline excitatory or inhibitory?

A
  • EXCITATORY
  • Increases the positive charge of the postsynaptic neuron, making it more likely to fire
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15
Q

Is serotonin excitatory or inhibitory?

A
  • INHIBITORY
  • Increases the negative charge of the postsynaptic neuron, making it less likely to fire
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16
Q

Is dopamine excitatory or inhibitory?

A

EQUALLY EXCITATORY AND INHIBITORY

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17
Q

Outline summation

A
  • Excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed and must reach a certain threshold in order for the action potential of the postsynaptic neuron to be triggered
  • If the net effect of the neurotransmitters is INHIBITORY, then the postsynaptic neuron is less likely to fire (i.e. no electrical signal is transmitted)
  • It’s more likely to fire if the net effect is EXCITATORY
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18
Q

Did Broca and Wernicke argue for localisation of function or holistic theory?

A

Localisation of function

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19
Q

Define localisation of function

A
  • Different parts of the brain perform different tasks and are involved with different parts of the body
  • If a certain part of the brain becomes damaged through illness or injury, the function associated with that area will also be affected
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20
Q

What is localisation of function also known as?

A

Cortical specialisation

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21
Q

Define hemispheric lateralisation and give an example, (e.g. language)

A
  • Some of our physical and psychological functions are controlled by a particular hemisphere
  • Language is linked to the left hemisphere
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22
Q

What side of the body is controlled by the right hemisphere, and what side of the body is controlled by the left hemisphere?

A
  • Left side of the body is controlled by the right hemisphere
  • Right side of the body is controlled by the left hemisphere
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23
Q

Name the four lobes of the brain

A
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24
Q

What area is in the frontal lobe?

A

At the back of the frontal lobe, is the MOTOR AREA which controls voluntary movement in the opposite side of the body

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25
Q

What happens if there is damage to the motor area?

A

There may a loss of control over fine movements

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26
Q

What area is in the parietal lobe?

A

At the front of the parietal lobe is the SOMATOSENSORY AREA, which is where sensory information from the skin (e.g. heat, touch pressure, etc.) is represented

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27
Q

What separates the somatosensory area and the motor area?

A

The CENTRAL SULCUS

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28
Q

What area is in the occipital lobe?

A
  • At the back of the brain is the VISUAL CORTEX
  • Each eye sends information from the right visual field to the left visual cortex and from the left visual field to the right visual cortex
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29
Q

What happens if there is damage to the left hemisphere in terms of vision?

A

Damage to the left hemisphere can produce blindness in part of the right visual fields of both eyes

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30
Q

What area is in the temporal lobe?

A

Temporal lobes contain the AUDITORY CORTEX, which analyses speech-based information

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31
Q

What happens if there is damage to the temporal lobes?

A
  • Damage may produce partial hearing loss
  • The more extensive the damage, the more extensive the loss
  • Damage to Wernicke’s area may affect the ability to comprehend language
32
Q

Describe Broca’s area and Broca’s aphasia

A
  • Broca’s area = area in the left frontal lobe, responsible for SPEECH PRODUCTION
  • Broca’s aphasia = speech that is slow, laborious and lacking fluency (lower ability to produce speech)
33
Q

Describe Wernicke’s area and Wernicke’s aphasia

A
  • Wernicke’s area = area in the left temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension
  • Wernicke’s aphasia = production in neologisms (nonsense words) as part of the content of their speech, since they have lower ability to understand language
34
Q

How is evidence of neurosurgery a strength of localisation of function in the brain?

A
  • One strength of localisation theory is that damage to areas of the brain has been linked to mental disorders
  • Neurosurgery is a last resort method for treating some mental disorders, targeting specific areas of the brain which may be involved
  • For example, a CINGULOTOMY involves isolating a region called the CINGULATE GYRUS, which has been implicated in OCD
35
Q

Outline Dougherty et al.’s study into the success of cingulotomy procedures

A
  • Dougherty et al. reported on 44 people with OCD, who had a cingulotomy
  • A post-surgical follow-up after 32 weeks, about 30% had met the criteria for successful response to the surgery and 14% for partial response
  • The success of these procedures suggests that behaviours associated with serious mental disorders may be localised
36
Q

How is evidence of brain scans a strength of localisation of function in the brain?

A
  • Brain scans support the idea that many everyday brain functions are localised
  • For example, Petersen et al. used brain scans to demonstrate how Wernicke’s area was active during a listening task and Broca’s area was active during a reading task
  • This confirms localised areas for everyday behaviours. Therefore, objective methods for measuring brain activity have provided sound scientific evidence that many brain functions are localised
37
Q

How does Lashley’s rat study challenge localisation theory?

A
  • Lashley removed (10% - 50%) of rats’ cortices who were learning the route through a maze
  • No area was proven to be more important than any other area in terms of the rats’ ability to learn the route
  • The process of learning seemed to require every part of the cortex rather than being confined to a particular area
  • This suggests that higher cognitive processes, e.g. learning, are not localised, but distributed holistically in the brain
38
Q

Language localisation has been questioned. How is this a weakness of localisation of function in the brain?

A
  • Language may not be localised just to Broca and Wernicke’s areas
  • A recent review found that only 2% of modern researchers believe that language in the brain is controlled fully by Broca and Wernicke’s areas
  • Advances in brain imaging techniques, e.g. fMRI, mean that neural processes can be studied with more clarity
    • Language functions are distributed more holistically than was once thought
    • Language streams have been found in the right hemisphere and the thalamus
  • This suggests that, rather than being confined to a couple of key areas, language may be organised more holistically, which contradicts localisation theory
39
Q

Discuss case study evidence as an evaluation point for localisation of function in the brain

A
  • Unique cases of neurological damage support localisation theory, e.g. PHINEAS GAGE
  • HOWEVER, there are problems with case studies. It’s difficult to generalise from the findings of a single person
  • Also conclusions drawn may depend on the subjective interpretation of the researcher
40
Q

How is language lateralised in the brain?

A
  • The 2 main language centres are in the LH - Broca’s area = left frontal lobe, Wernicke’s area = left temporal lobe
  • The RH provides emotional context to what is being said
  • This had led to the suggestion that the LH is the analyser, while the RH is the synthesiser
41
Q

Explain how movement is NOT lateralised

A
  • Motor area appears in both hemispheres
  • In the case of the motor area, the brain is CROSS-WIRED (CONTRALATERAL WIRING)
  • The RH controls movement on the left side of the body, whilst the LH controls movement on the right side of the body
42
Q

Explain how vision is NOT lateralised

A
  • It’s both contralateral*** and ***ipsilateral (both opposite and same sided)
  • Each eye receives light from the left and right visual fields. The LVF of both eyes is connected to the RH and the RVF of both eyes is connected to the LH
  • This enables the visual areas to compare the slightly different perspective from each eye and aids depth perception
43
Q

Describe the split-brain operation, known as a COMMISSUROTOMY, and how it reduces epilepsy

A
  • Commissurotomy involves severing the connections between the RH and LH
  • During an epileptic seizure, the brain experiences excessive electrical activity which travels from one hemisphere to the other. To reduce fits, these connections are cut, “splitting” the brain in 2 halves
44
Q

Outline Sperry’s research into the split-brain

A
  • 11 people who had a split-brain operation were studied using a special setup, in which an image could be projected to the LVF (processed by the RH)
  • In the “normal” brain, the corpus callosum would immediately share the info between both hemispheres, giving a complete picture of the visual world
  • HOWEVER, presenting the image to one hemisphere of a split-brain participant meant that the info CANNOT be conveyed from that hemisphere to the other
  • When a picture of an object was shown to a participant’s RVF (linked to LH) they could describe what was seen
  • But they could NOT do this if the object was shown to the LVF - they said there was nothing there
  • This is because, in the connected brain, messages from the RH are relayed to the languages centres in the LH, but this is not possible in the split brain
  • Although participants could not give verbal labels to objects projected in the LVF, they could select a matching object out of sight using their left hand (linked to RH)
  • The left hand was also able to select an object that was most closely associated with an object presented to the LVF (e.g. an ashtray was selected in response to a picture of a cigarette)
  • These observations show how functions are lateralised in the brain and support the view that the LH is verbal and the RH is “silent but emotional”
45
Q

How is lateralisation in the connected brain a strength of hemispheric lateralisation and split-brain research?

A
  • Even in connected brains, the 2 hemispheres process info differently
  • Fink et al. used PET scans to identify which brain areas were active during a visual processing task
  • When participants with connected brains were asked to attend to global elements of an image, (e.g. looking at a picture of a whole forest) regions of the RH were much more active
  • When required to focus in on the finer details (e.g. individual trees), the specific areas of the LH tended to dominate
  • This suggests that hemispheric lateralisation is a feature of the connected brain, as well as the split brain
46
Q

How is the idea of one brain a weakness of hemispheric lateralisation and split-brain research?

A
  • The idea that the LH is an analyser and the RH is a synthesiser may be wrong
  • There may be different functions in the RH and LH, but research suggests that people do NOT have a dominant side of their brain, which creates a different personality
  • Nielsen et al. analysed brain scans from over 1000 people aged 7-29 and found that people use certain hemisphere for certain tasks (evidence for lateralisation)
  • HOWEVER, there was no evidence of a dominant side, i.e. not artist’s brain or mathematician’s brain
  • This suggests that the notion of right or left brained people is wrong
47
Q

Discuss lateralisation vs plasticity as an evaluation point for hemispheric lateralisation and split-brain research

A
  • Lateralisation is adaptive as it enables two tasks to be performed simultaneously with greater efficiency
    • Rogers et al. showed that lateralised chickens could find food while watching for predators, but “normal” chickens couldn’t
  • HOWEVER, neural plasticity could also be seen as adaptive
    • According to Holland et al., following damage through illness or traumas, some functions can be taken over by non-specialised areas in the opposite hemisphere. For example, language function can literally “switch sides”
48
Q

How is research support for split-brain research a strength of hemispheric lateralisation and split-brain research?

A
  • Gazzaniga showed that split-brain participants actually perform BETTER than a connected control group on certain tasks
  • For example, they were faster at identifying the odd one out in an array of similar objects than normal controls
  • In the normal brain, the LH’s better cognitive strategies are “watered down” by the inferior RH, according to Kingstone et al.
  • This supports Sperry’s earlier findings that the left brain and right brain are distinct
49
Q

Discuss ethics as an evaluation point of hemispheric lateralisation and split-brain research

A
  • The commissurotomy wasn’t performed for the purpose of the research. So in that sense, Sperry’s participants were not deliberately harmed
  • In addition, all procedures were explained to the split-brain participants and their fully informed consent was obtained
  • HOWEVER, the trauma of the operation might mean that the participants did not later understand the implications of what they had agreed to
  • They were subject to repeated testing over a lengthy period of time (years in some cases), and this may have been stressful over time
50
Q

Define brain plasticity

A

The brain has the ability to mould itself and change throughout life

51
Q

According to Gopnik et al., how many synaptic connections do we have at 2-3 years old in comparison to when we are adults?

A
  • During infancy the brain experiences rapid growth in the number of synaptic connections it has, peaking at about 15,000 per neuron at 2-3 years old
  • This is twice as many as there are in the adult brain
52
Q

Describe synaptic pruning

A
  • As we age, rarely used connections are deleted and frequently used connections are strengthened (SYNAPTIC PRUNING)
  • Synaptic pruning enables lifelong plasticity where new neural connections are formed in response to new demands on the brain
53
Q

Outline Maguire’s research into plasticity (London taxi drivers)

A
  • Found significantly more volume of grey matter in the POSTERIOR HIPPOCAMPUS than in a matched control group
  • This part of the brain is associated with the development of spatial and navigational skills
  • As part of their training, taxi drivers must take a complex test called “the Knowledge”, which assesses their recall of the city streets and possible routes
    • 30% dropout rate
  • Also found this learning experiences alters the structure of the brain. The longer the drivers had been in the room, the more pronounced the structural difference (positive correlation)
54
Q

Describe functional recovery after brain trauma

A
  • Following physical injury, or other forms of trauma, e.g. stroke or brain hemorrhaging, unaffected areas of the brain are often able to adapt and compensate for the damaged areas (this is an example of neural plasticity)
  • Neuroscientists suggest that this process can occur quickly after trauma (SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY) and then slow down after several weeks or months
    • At this point, the individual may require rehabilitative therapy to help their recovery (e.g. Gabby Giffords and Clemency Burton-Hill)
55
Q

What happens in the brain during recovery?

A
  • The brain is able to rewire itself by forming new synaptic connections close to the damaged area
  • Secondary neural pathways that would not typically be used to carry out certain functions are unmasked to enable functioning to continue
  • This is supported by a number of structural changes in the brain (axonal sprouting, denervation sensitivity and recruitment of homologous areas)
56
Q

Define axonal sprouting in plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma

A

The growth of new nerve endings which connect with other undamaged neurons to form new pathways

57
Q

Define denervation sensitivity in plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma

A
  • This occurs when axons that do a similar job become aroused to a higher level to compensate for the ones that are lost
  • HOWEVER, it can have the negative consequence of oversensitivity to messages, such as pain
58
Q

Define recruitment of homologous areas in plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma

A
  • Occurs on the opposite side of the brain to the damaged area
  • This means that specific tasks can still be performed
  • For example, if Broca’s area was damaged on the left side of the brain, the right-sided equivalent would carry out its functions
  • After a period of time, functionality may return to the left side
59
Q

How is negative plasticity a weakness of plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma? (phantom limb syndrome)

A
  • 60% - 80% of amputees have been known to develop PHANTOM LIMB SYNDROME - the continued experience of sensations in the missing limbs as if it were still there
  • These sensations are usually unpleasant, painful and thought to be due to cortical reorganisation in the SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX that occurs as a result of limb loss
  • This suggests that the brain’s adaptability to damage isn’t always beneficial
60
Q

How is age and plasticity a strength of plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma? (Bezzola’s golfers)

A
  • Brain plasticity may be a life-long ability. In general, plasticity reduces with age
  • HOWEVER, Bezzola et al. demonstrated how 40 hours of golf training produced changes in the neural representations of movement in participants aged 40-60
  • Using fMRI, the researchers observed increased motor cortex activity in the novice golfers compared to a control group, suggesting more efficient neural representations after training
  • This shows that neural plasticity can continue throughout the lifespan
61
Q

Discuss seasonal brain changes as an evaluation point for plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma

A
  • Research suggests that there may be seasonal plasticity in the brain in response to environmental changes
  • For example, consider the SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS which regulates the sleep/wake cycle. There is evidence that it shrinks during spring and expands in autumn
  • HOWEVER, much of the work done on seasonal plasticity has been done on animals, most notably songbirds. Human behaviour may be controlled differently
62
Q

Plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma has real-world application has real-world application. How is this a strength?

A
  • Understanding the processes involved in plasticity has contributed to the field of neurorehabilitation
  • Simply understanding that axonal growth is possible encourages new therapies to be tried
  • For example, constraint induced movement therapy is used with stroke patients where they repeatedly practise using the affected part of their body (such as an arm) while the unaffected arm is restrained
  • This show that research into functional recovery is useful as it helps medical professionals know when interventions need to be made
63
Q

How is cognitive reserve a weakness of plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma? (level of education vs disability free recovery)

A
  • Level of education may affect recovery rates
  • Schneider et al. revealed that the more time people with a brain injury had spent in education - taken as an indication of their “cognitive reserve” - the greater their chances of a disability-free recovery (DFR)
  • 40% of those achieved DFR had more than 16 years’ education compared to 10% of those who had less than 12 years of education
  • This implies that people with brain damage who have insufficient DFR are less likely to achieve a full recovery
64
Q

Discuss small samples as an evaluation point for plasticity and functional recovery of the brain after trauma

A
  • Research is ongoing for new treatment to aid functional recovery
  • For example, a study by Banerjee et al. treated people who had a total anterior circulation stroke with stem cells
  • All participants in this trial recovered compared to the more typical level of just 4% recovery
  • HOWEVER, this study drew conclusions based on just 5 participants and no control group, which is fairly typical of research on functional recovery
65
Q

Outline fMRI as a way of studying the brain

A
  • Detects changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur as a result of neural activity in specific areas of the brain
  • When a brain area is more active, it consumes more oxygen and blood flow is directed to that area (haemodynamic response)
66
Q

Outline EEG as a way of studying the brain

A
  • An EEG measures electrical activity within the brain via ~70 electrodes that are fixed to the scalp using a skull cap
  • The scan represents the brainwave patterns that are generated from the action of thousands of neurons, providing an overall account of brain activity
  • Approx. 1000 data points are detected every second
  • EEG is often used as a diagnostic tool as unusual arrhythmic patterns of activity may indicate epilepsy, tumours or sleep disorders
67
Q

Outline ERP as a way of studying the brain

A
  • Overly general measure of brain activity
  • HOWEVER, neural responses associated with specific sensory, cognitive and motor events may be of interest to cognitive neuroscientists
  • Using a statistical averaging technique, all extraneous brain activity from the original EEG recording is filtered out, only leaving relevant data behind
  • Relevant data = ERPs - types of brainwave that are triggered by particular events
68
Q

Outline post-mortem examinations as a way of studying the brain

A
  • Involves the analysis of a person’s brain after their death
  • In psychological research, individuals whose brains are subject to a post-mortem as those who have a rare disorder and have experienced unusual deficits in cognitive processes or behaviour during their lifetime
  • Areas of damage within the brain are examined after death as a means of establishing the likely cause of the damage the person experienced
  • This may also involve comparison with a neurotypical brain in order to ascertain the extent of the difference
69
Q

What are the strengths of fMRI?

A
  • fMRI doesn’t rely on radiation
  • If used correctly, it’s non-invasive and risk-free
  • High spatial resolution, depicting detail to the mm
  • Provides a clear picture of how brain activity is localised
70
Q

What are the weaknesses of fMRI?

A
  • fMRI is expensive compared to other neuroimaging techniques
  • Poor temporal resolution (5 second time lag between the initial firing of neuronal activity and the image onscreen)
71
Q

What are the strengths of EEG?

A
  • Useful in studying the stages of sleep
  • Useful in diagnosis of epilepsy (a disorder characterised by random bursts of activity in the brain that can easily be detected onscreen)
  • High temporal resolution, so no time lag (resolution of a single millisecond)
72
Q

What are the weaknesses of EEG?

A
  • Generalised nature of the information specific (no specific info gained from EEG)
  • EEG signal not useful for pinpointing the exact source of neural activity, so low spatial resolution
73
Q

What are the strengths of ERP?

A
  • Brings much more specificity to the measurement of neural processes than could ever be achieved using raw EEG data
  • High temporal resolution as they’re derived from EEG data
  • Frequently used to measure cognitive functions and deficits
74
Q

What are the weaknesses of ERP?

A
  • Lack of standardisation between studies so difficult to confirm findings
  • In order to establish pure data in ERP studies, “background noise” and extraneous material must be completely eliminated, which cannot always be easily achieved
75
Q

What are the strengths of post-mortem?

A
  • Vital in providing a foundation for early understanding of key processes in the brain (e.g. Broca and Wernicke)
  • Used to study HM’s brain to identify areas of damage
76
Q

What are the weaknesses of post-mortem?

A
  • Observed damage to the brain may not be linked to the deficits under review, but to an unrelated trauma or decay
  • Ethical issues - unable to get consent from the individual before death, e.g. HM, who lost his ability to form memories and was unable to provide consent

A LEVEL PSYCH EXAMS (11 decks)

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