Psychology Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
Psychological Science
A
The study of mind, brain and behavoir
2
Q
Behavior
A
observable actions
3
Q
Amiable Skepticism
A
combination of openness and wariness
4
Q
Origin of Psychology
A
psychology originated in philosophy
5
Q
Nature vs. Nurture
A
do psychological characteristics come from biology or culture?
6
Q
Mind/Body Problem
A
are mind and body separate, or is mind the physical brain’s subjective experience?
7
Q
Wilhelm Wundt
A
- opened first psychological laboratory
- came up with idea of reaction time (used for psychological testing)
- developed method of introspection
8
Q
Introspection
A
systematic examination of subjective mental experiences requiring people to inspect and report content of thought (abandoned)
9
Q
Structuralism
A
- idea that conscious experience can be broken down into basic underlying components
- argued against y William James, who felt that mind is more complex than its elements, and cannot be broken down
10
Q
Stream of consciousness
A
- idea by William James that the mind is an ever-changing continuous series of thoughts
- this stream cannot be frozen in time, and is therefore an argument against structuralism
11
Q
Functionalism
A
- idea that the mind evolved with humans in such a way as to preserve life and facilitate procreation–helps humans adapt to their environments
- functionalists often argue that if a behavior serves a purpose, the purpose should be reflected in daily life
12
Q
Gestalt Theory
A
- Theory that the whole personal experience is not simply the sum of its components or elements–it is more than the sum of its parts
- argument against structuralism
- reflects idea that perception of objects is subjective and depends on context
13
Q
Unconsciousness
A
- Freud believed that much of human behavior is caused by subconscious mental processes
- Unconscious mental forces could produce psychological discomfort, and even disorders
14
Q
Psychoanalysis
A
- Developed by Freud
- Therapist and patient bring unconscious conflicts into light so that they can be dealt with
15
Q
Behaviorism
A
- Psychological approach focusing on observable environmental effects on behavior
- developed by John B. Watson
- leaned heavily toward nurture in nature/nurture issue
- Watson believed animals learned all behavior from environmental stimuli
- Once stimuli understood, response to them could be predicted
16
Q
Cognitive Psychology
A
- Concerned with functions like intelligence, thinking, language, memory, decision-making
- Study of how people think, learn, remember
- Research shows the way people think about things, influences, and behavior
- Information processing theories–brain runs the mind, ie brain is hardware, mind is software
17
Q
Cognitive Neuroscience
A
Study of neural mechanisms that underlie thought, learning, memory
18
Q
Social Psychology
A
Focuses on the power of situation and how people are shaped through social interaction
19
Q
Cultural Neuroscience
A
The study of how culture affects brain, mind, genes and behavior
20
Q
Biological level of analysis
A
how the physical body and brain contribute to mind and behavior
21
Q
Individual level of analysis
A
how individual difference of personality and mental process affects how people perceive and know the world
22
Q
Societal level of analysis
A
how group contexts affect how people interact and influence each other
23
Q
Cultural level of analysis
A
how thoughts, feelings and actions compare across cultures
24
Q
Mind, brain and behavior
A
brain is a biological structure, mind is a concept, behavior is an observable activity
25
Theory
Explanation or model of how a phenomenon works, which generates a hypothesis. A good theory generates testable hypotheses. Theories do not get proved, because science is provisional--it is our best understanding right now
26
Hypothesis
Specific, testable prediction about an outcome that would best support a theory--if the hypothesis is supported, than the theory might be accurate
27
Research
Systematic collection of data
28
Replication
Repeating a study and getting the same results to build confidence in the outcome
29
Serendipity
Unexpectedly discovering something important
30
Variable
Something in the world that can vary and be measured or manipulated
31
Operational definitions
variables must b identified and quantified so that they can be measured
32
Descriptive studies
observing and noting behavior of people or other animals to provide a systematic and objective analysis of their behavior
33
Naturalistic observation
A descriptive study where the observer is removed from the situation and does not try to change it
34
Participant observation
Descriptive study where the researcher is actively involved in the situation--this can be problematic
35
Longitudinal study
A descriptive study of the same participants multiple times over a period of time
36
Cross-sectional study
compares subjects in different groups (ie young and old) at the same time--this is slightly less reliable than a longitudinal study because of the cohort effect, meaning that it does not account for other variables
37
Observer bias
systematic errors in observation due to the observer's expectations, which are often due to cultural norms
38
Experimenter Expectancy Effect
Expectations of the observer can actually change the behavior of the subjects--having the researcher blind to the hypothesis of the study helps prevent this effect
39
Correlational studies
examine how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them, or explain causation
40
Directionality Problem
in a correlational study, it can be hard to determine which variable affects the other
41
Third Variable Problem
in a correlational study, instead of one variable affecting another, both could be affected by a third variable
42
Use of Correlational Studies
Correlational studies are often used because they are more ethical than say, causing mental disorders in one part of a research group
43
Experiment
A study that tests causal hypotheses by measuring and manipulating variables, thus providing the researcher with maximum control
44
Control group
In an experiment, comparison group that receives no intervention, or intervention unrelated to the variable being tested
45
Experimental group
In an experiment, the treatment group, meaning the group that receives the intervention
46
Independent Variable
variable manipulated by experimenter to determine its effect on the dependent variable
47
Dependent Variable
Variable affected by manipulation of the independent variable
48
Confound
Anything that effects a dependent variable and may vary between experimental conditions of a study
49
Population
everyone in the group an experimenter is interested in
50
Sample
the subset of a population, used to study a population
51
Random Sampling
way of generating the most reliable sample for an experiment
52
External Validity
the extent to which the findings of an experiment can be generalized outside the laboratory--deals with how artificial an experiment is
53
Selection Bias
in an experiment, unintended differences between participants in different groups
54
Random Assignemnt
Placing experimental subjects in experimental conditions so that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable
55
Culturally sensitive research
takes into account differences in ways people of different cultures think, feel, act
56
Observational Techniques
careful and systematic assessment and coding of overt behavior
57
Reactivity
When knowledge that they are being observed alters the behavior of the observed
58
Case studies
intensive examination of unusual people or organizations
59
Self-Reported Methods
Data collection method where people are asked to provide information about themselves, such as in questionnaires and surveys. Self-Reports can contain bias due to pressures of what is socially acceptable. People may even believe things about themselves that are not true.
60
Experience Sampling
Self-reported method where subjects are asked questions over time
61
Response Performance
Research method in which researchers quantify perceptual or cognitive processes in response to specific stimulus. Quantification can be in the form of reaction time, response accuracy, or stimulus judgements
62
Psychophysiological Assessment
Researchers assess how bodily functions change in association with behaviors or mental state
63
Electrophysiology
Data collection method that measures electrical activity in the brain
64
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
device that measures electrical activity in the brain
65
Position Emission Tomography (PET)
Method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream
66
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Method of brain imaging that produces high-quality images of the brain
67
Functional MRI (fMRI)
Imaging technique used to examine changes in brain activity of the working brain
68
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
Use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity to study brain regions
69
Transgenic Mice
Mice that have been genetically manipulated for use in experiments
70
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)
groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and provides for the physical and emotional well-being of research participants
71
Informed Consent
Research subjects make an informed decision to participate in studies. Researchers may use deception of telling all details and goals of a study would undermine it. If so, researchers must debrief with subjects afterward.
72
Internal Validity
Whether data collected addresses questions asked in the experiment. The data must provide clear information to evaluate the hyptheses
73
Reliability
The extent to which a measure is stable and consistent over time in similar conditions
74
Accuracy
The extent to which measure in an experiment is error-free. Systematic error (such as a glitch in measuring equipment) is more problematic than random error (such as human error) because random error can average out over time
75
Descriptive Statistics
mathematical forms that provide a summary of an experiment's data
76
Central Tendency
A single value that describes a typical response or behavior of a group studied--could be a mean, median or mode
77
Standard Deviation
Reflects how far each value on average lies from the mean
78
Correlation Coefficient (r-value)
value between -1 and 1 that reflects the strength of the correlation between two variables in a study. A perfectly positive correlation is 1.0, and a perfectly negative correlation is -1.0
79
Inferential Statistics
set of procedures used to make judgements about whether differences actually exist between a set of numbers
80
Meta-Analysis
"Study of studies" that draws a conclusion by taking into account various studies
81
Bad Theory
- generates no testable hypotheses
- only partially accounts for observations
- can't be falisified
82
r^2 value
how much variation in one variable is accounted for by the other variable
83
Threats to Internal Validity
- Differences among study groups
| - Confound
84
Demand Characteristic
if a subject understands the point of a study, they might try to act the way they feel they are supposed to
85
Neurons
Basic unit of nervous system--cells that send, receive, integrate, and transmit information in the nervous system. Neurons operate through electrical impulses, communicate with each other, and form neural networks.
86
Neural Network
Circuit formed by selective communication between neurons, which develop through maturation and experience
87
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Consists of the brain and spinal cord, and is interdependent on the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
88
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
All nerve cells not part of the CNS, including the somatic and autonomic nervous system
89
Reception Phase
Neurons take in chemicals from neighbors
90
Integration Phase
Neurons assess incoming signals
91
Transmission Phase
Neurons pass on signals to other neurons
92
Sensory Neurons
Detect information from the physical world and send it to the brain via the spinal cord (also called afferent)
93
Motor Neurons
Direct muscles to contract or relax (also called efferent neurons)
94
Interneurons
Communicate only with other neurons within local circuits
95
Dendrites
Short, branchlike extensions of neurons that detect information from other neurons
96
Cell body
Place where information received from other neurons is collected and integrated
97
Axon
Long stem on the neuron used to transmit information to other neurons
98
Terminal Buttons
Nodules at the end of axons that release chemicals from the neuron into the synapse
99
Synapse
Space where chemical communication between neurons occurs
100
Synaptic Cleft
gap between the axon of the sending neuron and the dendrites of the receiving neuron
101
Myelin Sheath
Fatty material that insulates the axon to allow for movement of electrical impulses along it
102
Nodes of Ranvier
Gaps of exposed axon between the myelin sheath that allow for the movement of electrical impulses along it
103
Resting Membrane Potential
A resting neuron is slightly more negatively charged than is outside (polarized) in order to create energy necessary for firing. Sodium and Potassium ions mostly contribute to resting membrane potential . They are allowed in and out through ion channels, the selectively permeable membrane and the Sodium-Potassium pump. There is more Sodium than Potassium inside the neuron.
104
Action Potential
(Neuron firing) electrical signal that passes along the axon, causing the release of chemicals that transmit signals to other neurons
105
Excitatory Signals
Signals that depolarize the cell membrane, increasing firing liklihood
106
Inhibitory Signals
Signals that hyperpolarize the cell, decreasing firing liklihood
107
Process of Neuron Firing
Sodium allowed in, potassium allowed out, changing inside charge.
108
Propagation
When a neuron fires, depolarization moves along the axon from cell body to terminal buttons
109
All-or-Nothing Principal
A neuron fires with the same potency each time
110
Presynaptic Neuron
Sends signal to postsynaptic neuron
111
Postsynaptic Neuron
Receives signal from presynaptic neuron
112
Neurotransmitters
Chemical substance that carry signals across the synaptic cleft, binding to receptors on postsynaptic neuron
113
Receptors
Protein molecules on postsynaptic membrane that receive neurotransmitters and respond by producing excitatory or inhibitory signals. Each receptor is influenced by only one type of neurotransmitter, and it is the property of the receptor that determines whether neurotransmitter will be excitatory or inhibitory
114
Reuptake
Neurotransmitter is taken back into presynaptic terminal buttons, stopping its activity
115
Enzyme deactivation
When enzyme destroys neurotransmitter in synaptic cleft
116
Autoreceptors
Receive neurotransmitters on presynaptic neuron, stopping the release of neurotransmitters at the right time.
117
Agonists
Drugs that enhance actions of neurotransmitters
118
Antagonists
Drugs that inhibit actions of neurotransmitters
119
Acetylcholine
The neurotransmitter responsible for motor control at the junction between nerves and muscles; also involved in mental processes such as learning, memory, sleeping and dreaming.
120
Epinephrine
A monoamine neurotransmitter responsible for bursts of energy after an event that is exciting or threatening
121
Norepinephrine
A monoamine neurotransmitter involved instates of arousal and awareness
122
Serotonin
A monoamine neurotransmitter iporant for a wide range of psychological activity including emotional states, impulse control and dreaming.
123
Dopamine
A monoamine neurotransmitter involved in motivation, reward, and motor control over voluntary movement.
124
GABA
Gamma-aminobutyric acid; the primary inhibitory transmitter in the nervous system.
125
Glutamate
The primary excitatory transmitter in the nervous system
126
Endorphins
Neurotransmitters involved in natural pain reduction and reward
127
Substance P
A neurotransmitter involved in pain perception
128
Brain Stem
extension of the spinal cord, houses structures that control functions associated with survival--breathing, swallowing, etc.
129
Cerebellum
Protuberance at the back of the brain stem essential for coordinated movement and balance
130
Hypothalamus
Brain structure involved in regulation of bodily functions, ie. blood pressure, body temperature, etc. Also influences basic motivated behaviors. The hypothalamus influences sleep, apetite and hormones.
131
Thalamus
Gateway to the brain--receives almost all sensory information before it reaches the cortex (except smell)
132
Hippocampus
Brain structure associated with formation of memories. It encodes short-term memory into long-term memory
133
Amygdala
Brain structure that serves a vital role in learning to associate things with emotional responses and processing emotional information
134
Basal Ganglia
System of subcortical structures important for the production of planned movement, or higher movement
135
Cerebral Cortex
The outer layer of brain tissue which forms the convoluted surface of the brain. This divides into four sections--frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
136
Occipital lobes
Retions of the cerebral cortex--at the back of the brain--important for vision
137
Parietal lobes
Regions of the cerebral cortex--in front of the occipital lobes and behind the frontal lobes--important for the sense of touch and for conceptualizing the spatial layout of an environment
138
Temporal lobes
Regions of the cerebral cortex--below the parietal lobes and in front of the occipital lobes--important for processing auditory information, for memory, and for object and face perception
139
Frontal lobes
Regions of the cerebral cortex--at the front of the brain--important for movement and higher-level psychological processes associated with the prefrontal cortex
140
Preforntal Cortex
The frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans; important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality
141
Somatic Nervous System
A component of the peripheral nervous system' it transmits sensory signals and motor signals between the central nervous system and the skin
142
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
A component of the peripheral nervous system; it transmits sensory signals and motor signals between the central nervous system and the body's glands and internal organs
143
Sympathetic Division
A division of the autonomic nervous system; it prepares the body for action
144
Parasympathetic Division
A division of the autonomic nervous system; it returns the body to its resting state
145
Endocrine system
A communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviors and actions
146
Hormones
Chemical substances, released from endocrine glands, that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues; the tissues are subsequently influenced by the hormones
147
Gonads
The main endocrine glands involved in sexual behavior
148
Pituitary Gland
A gland located at the base of the hypothalamus; it sends hormonal signals to other endocrine glands, controlling their release of hormones
149
Heritability
A statistical estimate of the extent to which variation in a trait within a population is due to genetic factors
150
Plasticity
A property of the brain that allows it to change as a result of experience, drugs, or injury
151
Statistically Significant Difference
A difference probably caused by the factor you are hypothesizing about. Just because a difference is statistically significant does not mean it is a big one. As sample size gets larger, you can be more confident in the significance of a smaller percent difference
152
Axon hillock
integration zone
153
Transmission phase
Electricity travels down the axon
154
White Matter
Brain matter that is white because of lots of fat from the Myelin sheaths of axons
155
Grey Matter
Brain matter that is grey because of cell bodies
156
Limbic System
Regulates emotional behaviors, appetite, and reward. Consists of amygdala, basal ganglia, hippocampus, frontal lobe, thalamus and hypothalamus
157
Higher Cognitive Functions
Problem-solving, self awareness, decision-making, response inhibition.
158
Sensation
sense organs' detection of external stimulus energy--light, odors, and transmission of responses to the brain
159
Perception
Processing, organization and interpretation of sensory signals--results in representation of stimulus in the mind
160
Sensory coding
Translation of physical properties of stimuli into patterns of neural impulses
161
Transduction
Process by which sensory receptors produce neural impulses when they receive physical or chemical stimulation. The brain needs qualitative and quantitative info about stimulus to function effectively. Neurons fire more rapidly in response to more intense signals
162
Coarse Coding
sensory coding by sensory receptors that are coded by only a few types of receptors
163
Psychophysics
Study of our phsychological experience of physical stimuli
164
Absolute Threshold
Minimum amount of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation
165
Difference Threshold
Minimum amount of change required for a person to detect a difference (eg. change in volume) increases (meaning amount of difference must become larger) as stimulus becomes more intense
166
Weber's Law
The more intense the stimulus, the bigger the change needed in order for you to perceive a change
167
Signal Detection Theory (SDT)
Detecting a stimulus requires making a judgement about its presence or absence based on a subjective interpretation of ambiguous information
168
Gustation
Sense of taste, used to keep poison out of system
169
Supertasters
highly aware of flavors and textures, and are more likely to feel pain while eating spicy foods
170
Olfaction
Sense of smell, has the most direct route to the brain
171
Olfactory Epithelium
layer of tissue embedded with cell receptors
172
Olfactory Bulb
Brain center for smell, below frontal lobes. Each odor stimulates several receptors and activation patterns across several types of receptors, and activation patterns across several types of receptors determine olfactory perception. The area of the brain where smell intensity is determined is also involved in memory processing.
173
Pheramones
Chemicals released by animals that trigger physiological or behavioral reactions in other animals.
174
Haptic Sense
Touch--conveys sensations of temperature, pressure and pain, though the actual experience of pain is created by the brain. Nerves for pain are found in the skin, muscles, membranes around bones and joints, organs, etc.
175
Fast fibers
convey sharp, imediate pain, activated by physical pressure and teperature extremes
176
Slow fibers
Convey chronic, dull, steady pain, activated by chemical changes in tissue when it is damaged
177
Audition
hearing, second to vision as a source of information about the world
178
Amplitude
Quality of a wave that determines loudness of sound
179
Frequency
Quality of a wave that determines pitch of sound
180
Eardrum
Thin membrane that marks the beginning of the middle ear. Sound waves cause it to vibrate.
181
Cornea
Outer covering of the eye
182
Retina
Thin inner surface of the back of the eyeball, containing photoreceptors that transduce light into neural signals
183
Rods
Retinal cells that respond to low levels of illumination and result in black-and-white perception
184
Cones
Retinal cells that respond to higher levels of illumination and result in color perception
185
Forvea
Center of the retina, where cones are densely packed
186
Trichromatic Theory
Color vision results from activity in three different types of cones that are sensitive to different wavelenghts
187
Ganglion Cells
Cells that make up the optic nerve. Opposite colors result from the fact that ganglion cells that are excited by one color are inhibited by their opposite
188
Subtractive Color Mixing
Process of color mixing that occurs within the stimulus itself; physical, not psychological process
189
Additive Color Mixing
A process of color mixing that occurs when different wavelengths of light interact within the eye's receptors; a psychological process
190
Kinesthetic Sense
Perception of the positions in space and movements of our bodies and limbs
191
Vestibular Sense
Perception of balance
192
Primary sensory areas
Regions of the cerebral cortex where the perceptual process begins
193
Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Area of the parietal lobe where touch info is projected from the thalamus
194
Gate Control Theory of Pain
For us to experience pain, pain receptors must be activated and neural "gate" in spinal cord must allow signals through to the brain
195
Primary Auditory Cortex
Area of temporal lobe where neurons code the frequency of auditory stimuli
196
Primary Visual Cortex
Located in the occipital lobe
197
Ventral Stream
Lower of two parallel processing streams, specialized for perception and recognition of objects, i.e. determining color and shape
198
Dorsal Stream
Upper parallel processing stream, specialized for spacial perception
199
Blindsight
Condition in which people who are blind have some spared visual capacities in the absence of any visual awareness
200
Principal Proximity
The closer two figures are to each other, the more likely we are to group them and see them as part of the same object
201
Principal of Similarity
We tend to group figures according to how closely they resemble each other
202
Good Continuation
The tendency to interpret intersecting lines as continuous rather than changing direction radically
203
Occluder
Anything that hides from view a portion of an object or and entire object (good contour helps complete an object behind one)
204
Closure
Tendency to complete figures that have gaps (fill in gaps)
205
Illusory Contours
We sometimes perceive contours and cues to depth when they do not exist
206
Bottom-Up Processing
Hierarchical model of pattern recognition in which data are relayed from one level of mental processing to the next, always moving to a higher level of processing
207
Top-Down Processing
Hierarchical model of pattern recognition in which information at higher levels of processing can also influence earlier levels in processing hierarchy
208
Prosopagnosia
Defect in the ability to recognize faces
209
Fusiform Gyrus
Part of the brain in the right hemisphere--region of this might be specialized for perceiving faces
210
Binocular Depth Cues
Cues of depth perception that arise from the fact that people have two eyes, ane contribute to bottom-up processing
211
Monocular Depth Cues
Cues in depth perception that are available to each eye alone, and provide organizational information for top-down processing
212
Binocular Disparity
A depth cue; because of the distance between a person's eyes, each eye receives a slightly different retinal image.
213
Stereoscopic Vision
The ability to determine an object's depth based on that object's projections to each eye
214
Convergence
A cue of binocular depth perception; when a person views a nearby object, the eye muscles turn the eyes inward. The brain senses this, and uses the information to perceive distance.
215
Pictorial Depth Cues
Another way of referring to monocular depth cues, since they are often used by artists to create a sense of depth.
216
Occlusion
Pictorial depth cue: A near object occludes (blocks) an object that is farther away
217
Relative Size
Pictorial depth cue: Far-off objects project a smaller retinal image than close objects do, if the far-off and close objects are the same physical size.
218
Familiar Size
Pictorial depth cue: We know how large familiar objects are, so we can tell how far away they are by the size of their retinal images
219
Linear Perspective
Pictorial depth cue: Seemingly parallel lines appear to converge in the distance
220
Texture Gradient
Pictorial depth cue: as a uniformly textured surface recedes, its texture continuously becomes denser
221
Position Relative to Horizon
Pictorial depth cue: All else being equal, objects below the horizon that appear higher in the visual field are perceived as being farther away. Objects above the horizon that appear lower in the visual field are perceived as being farther away.
222
Motion Parallax
The relative movements of objects that are at various distances from the observer. For example, near objects seem to pass us more quickly in the opposite direction of our movement. Objects farther away seem to move more slowly.
223
Ames box
Demonstrates dependence of size perception on distance perception. Proportion of box interfere with depth perception, so objects placed closer to viewer appear larger than they really are, while objects placed farther away might appear smaller.
224
Ponzo Illusion
Demonstrates dependence of size perception on distance perception. Two lines slanted toward one another perceived as parallel lines converging in the distance due to monocular depth cues. Two horizontal lines between them therefore appear to be at different distances from the viewer, and therefore different sizes when they are really the same size.
225
Motion Afteraffects
When you gaze at a moving image for a long time and then gaze at a stationary scene, it appears to be moving in an opposite direction from the moving image. Explained by theory that visual cortex has neurons that respond to movement. After staring at movement, they become fatigued and less sensitive to it, so if stimulus is removed, motion detectors that respond to all other directions are more active than fatigued motion detectors.
226
Compensation for Head and Eye Movement
Brain calculates an object's perceived movements by monitoring the movement of the eyes, and possibly head as they track moving objects. Additionally, motion detectors track an image's motion across the retina,as the receptors in the retina fire one after another. This can help us sense that our head or eyes or moving, and not objects around us.
227
Perceptual Consistency
Correctly perceiving objects as constant in their shape, size, color and lightness despite raw sensory data that could mislead perception. To perceive each of four constancies, we need to understand the relationship between the object and at least one other factor, such as distance of object, angel of vision, wavelengths of background, and amount of light being reflected from an object and its background.
