Psychology Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
Psychology
A
The scientific study of behaviors and underlying mental process.
-Use the scientific method
-Social science, study of people
2
Q
Empirical evidence
A
The information obtained through observation and documentation of certain behavior and patterns or through an experiment.
3
Q
Behavior
A
The way you act, observe
EX. talking, sitting, writing, etc.
4
Q
Mental Process
A
The unobservable things; (we can’t see)
5
Q
Biological Approach
A
Examine a persons biology (genetics, brain & nervous system, hormones, neurotransmitters, etc.)
-1st part = investigate internal body chemistry (Bio psychologist)
EX. Blood work - check chemicals for depression, a chemical imbalance
EX. MRI for OCD, difference in OCD & Non-OCD Brain
-Change internal issues with medinice
-Dignous & treatment
-Diet, medication, physical activity, sleep, sickness-engery affect through the day.
6
Q
Behavioral Approach
A
Stresses the importance of external environment (what we can see, the nature)
People we are around - family,friends, teachers, coaches, doctors, etc.
Cause & Effect, behavior gets developed in different ways - through associations
EX. End of class bell = leave - learn through association
Rewards & punishments, reinforce type strategy
Focus on what I can see, not so much internal, can train behaviors outwardly.
7
Q
Psychodynamic Approach
A
Based on ideas & theories of Sigmund Freud
Developed ideas in 18th-19th hundreds
Unconscious - the collection of previous experiences (think iceberg): we don’t remember
Highly individual, so much of who er are, emphasis on early childhood
Brain is not as full developed (2&3 years old), but formative years
EX. Favorite color, music = some reason why
8
Q
Humanistic Approach
A
We all have potential (regardless of situation) for improvement
Positive view of human nature
The needs that if not men might meet the potential (safe, security, food) - things that get in the way of us doing/being our best
Importance of our self concept - idea of self
EX. put on outfit, ask how it looks, says its fine so you go change = why self concept is so important, it is your reality (=)
Self person is important for how you see yourself
9
Q
Cognitive Approach
A
“The thought process”
Centered on a person’s thought process, how we take in, analyze information
The most important thing is figuring out what we do is the thought process
EX. Why you do or do not like a class/teacher = cognitive approach
10
Q
Cognitive Thinking
A
Attention, choice based behavior, decision making, forgetting, information processing, languages acquisition, memory, problem-solving, speech & visual perception, beliefs and expectations, experiences (remember), morals
“I just think it will be” = cognitive thinking approach
11
Q
Psychologist
A
An individual who is professionally trained in one or more subfields of psychology.
4 year undergrad degree (BA/BS)
Clinical = Ph.D, Psy.D = 2-4 years (all together 7+ years of school)
Educational Ed.D
Field experience na dlisense
M.A. (Masters Degree) = 2 years
Help provide social, emotional, behavioral therapy.
12
Q
Psychiatrist
A
Gets M.D. (Medical Doctorate)
4 - years undergrad
4 years medical school
2 + years of residency
Needs extra medical background
Can prescribe medicine
Help provide social, emotional, behavioral therapy.
13
Q
Specialty Fields (1-2 most common)
A
Clinical Psychology: assess, diagnose, and treat mental illnesses.
Counseling Psychology
Experimental Psychology
Forensic Psychology
Education: school psychologist, special education teacher, counselor, learning specialist, or assessment specialist.
14
Q
Introspection
A
The examination of one’s own conscious thoughts and feelings.
The process of introspection relies on the observation of one’s mental state, while in a spiritual context it may refer to the examination of one’s soul.
15
Q
Who is Wilhelm Wundt? Why is he significant in the field of psychology?
A
A German physiologist and a philosopher.
He was the first person to ever call themselves a psychologist.
Opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. This was the first laboratory that was dedicated to psychology. It is thought to be the beginning of modern psychology.
16
Q
Structuralism
A
Easy definition: breaking down mental processes into the most basic components.
A method of interpretation and analysis of the aspects of human cognition, behavior, culture, and experience that focuses on the relationships of contrast between the elements in a conceptual system that reflects patterns that underlay a superficial diversity
17
Q
Functionalism
A
The theory that all aspects of a society serve a function and are necessary for the survival of that society. Have to adapt to our environment.
18
Q
William James
A
American philosopher and psychologist and the first educator to take psychology courses in the US.
He helped to found psychology as a formal discipline, he helped establish a school of functionalism in psychology.
He also greatly advanced the movement of pragmatism in philosophy.
19
Q
Ivan Pavlov (Early behavioral psychologist)
A
Most well known for developing an experiment testing the concept of the conditioned reflex.
20
Q
B.F. Skinner (Early behavioral psychologist)
A
Wrote a novel (1938) based on his theories Walden Two (1948).
21
Q
Gestalt psychology
A
A school of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole.
Gestalt psychology suggests that humans do not focus on separate components but instead tend to perceive objects as elements of a more complex system.
Gestalt psychology was founded by Max Wertheimer, a Czecholsovakian psychologist.
Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka are also considered co-founders of the Gestalt theory.
22
Q
Sigmund Freud
A
Human behavior is influenced by unconscious memories, thoughts, and urges.
Think “iceberg”
23
Q
Clinical psychology
A
The branch of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment of mental illness and psychological problems.
24
Q
Behaviorism
A
A theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, and conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.
The way you act
- Simple observable actions, WHAT I SEE
25
Ethical guidelines (w/ examples)
Professional recommendations and advice for psychologists to follow as they do research or provide treatments.
Informed consent, confidentiality, anonymity, and debriefing
26
Research
Theory-driven, hypothesis-testing science driven by a quest for fundamental understanding.
27
4 Goals of scientific psychology
Describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes.
28
Hypothesis
A precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict will be the outcome of the study.
29
Scientific Method (systematic)
Hypothesis, Experiment, Theory, Critical thinking/analyze research & data
An approach of gathering information & answering questions so that errors & bias are minimized.
30
Basic Research
Finding something & researching it
One individual/group a researcher goes in-depth in analyzing them, deep research
EX. 6th graders start smoking
31
Applied Research
Take action - response to findings
Use in productive & resourceful ways
EX. Taking action to stop/help it (the 6th graders smoking)
32
Critical Thinking
Analyze research & data collection with skepticism
33
Case Study (Non-experimental Research)
An in-depth investigation into all aspects of an individual subject
Have a condition you want to study or some unique sitneuation.
Phineas Gage: Rod went though his head, case study = what he was like after the incident
Interview patient, background, medical history
Drawbacks = might not be the same for everyone.
34
Naturalistic Observation (Non-experimental Research)
Watch & record information from subjects in their typical everyday environment
Get a truer sense of their behavior
EX. Jane Goodall investigating money in their natural environmental
35
Observer bias
Making judgements of subject (vs. simply reporting behaviors)
36
Observer effects
Presence of observer changes the behavior of subjects
Unnoticed observation = “true self behaviors/way that they will act”
37
Survey (Non-experimental Research)
A questionnaire distributed in order to gather information (data) on a subject(s)
- Statistics
- Efficient data
- Honesty
- Fast
38
Self-report bias
Giving misinformation about oneself to researches (for many reasons)
39
Courtesy bias
Fill out to be polite to the person.
EX. Survey after a meeting, how was the meeting? (it was boring) but you say its good.
40
Correlational Study (Non-experimental Research)
Looks to examine a possible relationship between 2 or more variables ( measure and categorize)
41
Correlational Coefficient
A number between -1.0 to +1.0 represents strength of relationship.
Measure by distance from 0, or absolute value
42
Positive Correlation
Variable 1 increase and variable 2 increase
43
Negative Correlation
Variable 1 increase and variable 2 decrease
44
No Correlation
No pattern to variables
45
Operation Definition
How I measure whatever variable I’ve chosen
- Has to be measurable
46
Subject
Individuals participating in research studies
47
Sample
The method by which participants are selected to be included in a study
48
Random Sample
A technique in which each person is equally likely to be selected
49
Representative
A sample that closest matched the target population as a whole in terms of key variables and characteristics.
50
Experiment
A method of identifying cause-and-effect relationships by following a set of rules & guidelines that minimize the possibility of error, bias, & chance occurrences
- Why? - cause & effect
51
Extraneous variable
Any variable not being investigated that has the potential to affect the outcome of a research study.
52
Confounding variables
Factors other than the independent variable that may cause a result.
53
Scientific Method (Step 1)
Make a hypothesis (if..then..), one or more specific questions
54
Scientific Method (Step 2)
Identify
If = The independent variable
Then = the dependent variable, the effect
55
Scientific Method (Step 3)
Choose
Random selection: each subject in a sample population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the experiment
Important to avoid any potential error or bias that may come from them knowing or unknowingly wanting to choose the “best” subjects for their experiment.
56
Scientific Method (Step 4)
Assign
Experimental group: composed of subjects who receive the treatment
Control group: composed of subjects who undergo all the Same procedures as the experimental subjects expect that the control subjects do not receive the treatment
57
Scientific Method (Step 5)
Manipulate
- Researchers manipulate the IV by administering the treatment to the experimental group
- Give some conditions to control group but a different level of treatment, no treatment, or a placebo
58
Scientific Method (Step 6)
Measure
- Final measurement & data analysis (comparison)
- Support or refute your hypothesis
59
Placebo
Pill/treatment that has no medical effects
(In research it should be identical to the IV or whatever medication you are using)
- Can have real effects on one’s behavior, have a real impact on them.
60
Placebo Effect
When a person thinks they take medication, their behavior can change as a result.
- More than 1/3 (35%) of patients with pain respond to placebos.
- They ARE getting better from the placebo effect, it worked
Why? Expectations (Cognitive approach)? Endorphins? Sid effects?
REAL OCCURRENCE
61
Double-blind Experiment
One where neither the subject or the researcher know who is which group.
- Prevents bias & judgements
62
Single blind experiment
A type of clinical trial in which only the researcher doing the study knows which treatment or intervention the participant is receiving until the trial is over.
63
Experimental effect
An experimental artifact where participants consciously or unconsciously alter their behavior to align with the expectations of the experimenter, potentially influencing the study outcomes.
- One famous example was the horse Clever Hans
64
Independent Variable
The condition or treatment that is being tested.
65
Dependent Variable
How we measure the effects of treatment
66
Reliabilty
The consistency of what is found or the result of a psychology research study.
67
Validity
When a test is considered valid if it measures the constant it was designed to access or measure.
68
Informed Consent
Is a person's voluntary agreement to participate in a procedure and they understand what is going to happen, what might work, and what might be a possible risk for the procedure.
69
Debriefing
A set of procedures including counseling and the giving of information aimed at preventing psychological morbility and aiding recovery after a schematic event, provides participants with a full explanation of the hypothesis being tested.
70
Neurons
The structural and functional unit of the nervous system.
71
Dendrites
A branch like structure that "receives" information and carries it into the neuron.
72
Soma (Cell Body)
It's surrounded by dendrites and it is the brain of the neuron
73
Axon
It is the long fiber part of the neuron that electrical messages travel down it
74
Terminal Buttons
Tiny bulblike structures at the end of the axon, which contain and release the neurotransmitters
75
Synapse
The empty space between 2 neurons where neurons chemically talk to each other
76
Nerve impulse
A sudden reversal of the electrical charge across the membrane of a resting neuron, called an action potential.
(action potential)
77
Nervous System
Relaying information to & from the brain
Your communication systems
Sends messages
- About use of nerves in your body
78
Synapse
The space (gap) between the end of 1 neuron & the begining of anohter.
- They may touch, the CAN NOT connect
79
Central Nervous System (N.S.)
Brain & spinal cord
- Don’t regenerate
~ EX: Alzheimer (loosing those neurons)
80
Peripheral Nervous System (N.S.)
Branch 1
Everywhere else
- Regenerate
81
Branch 2: Autonomic N.S.
(Involuntary)
- Blinking and breathing
82
Branch 2: Somatic N.S.
(Voluntary)
- Sensory & Movement (motor)
- Write name & walking across a room
83
Sympathetic N.S.
Branch 3 off of Autonomic N.S.
“Fight or Flight”
Activates the body
- Increase heart rate
- Dry mouth
- Have to pee
84
Parasympathetic N.S.
Branch 3 off of Autonomic N.S.
“Rest & Digest”
Relaxes the body
- Decrease heart rate
- Stimulate Silvia
- Contract Bladder
85
Electrical
(Way to transmit a message)
Axon
86
Chemical
(Way to transmit a message)
End/beginning of neuron between 2 neurons
87
Ion
Charged particle
Opposite charges attract
- Negative - protein, chloride (Cl)
- Positive - Sodium (Na), Potassium (K)
88
Threshold
Point at which the voltage triggers an action potential
89
Action Potential
The change in electric potential that propagates along the axon of a neuron during the transmission of a nerve impulse or the contraction of a muscle.
EX. when we smell a scent, the olfactory neurons in the nose fire action potentials as a response.
90
All or Nothing Event
Change/current will go all to the end of the axon once it begins.
91
Neurotransmitter
Chemical substance that is released when electrical impulse reaches axon terminals, travels across synapse to next axon.
Each type sends a specific message.
92
Most common (small molecule) neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine, dopamine, glutamate, serotonin, norepinephrine, gamma-Aminobutyric acid, oxytocin.
93
Endorphins
Neurotransmitters released by the pituitary gland and hypothalamus in the brain.
94
Sensory
Peripheral sensory neurons are activated by stimuli external to the body, such as light, touch, sound, scent, or taste.
95
Motor
A rapid, unlearned, involuntary motor response to a given stimulus.
96
Relay
Relay neurons connect sensory neurons to motor neurons.
97
Agonist
A substance that mimics the actions of a neurotransmitter or hormone to produce a response when it binds to a specific receptor in the brain.
98
Antagonist
A chemical or drug that binds to receptors in the brain and prevents an agonist from having a reaction.
99
Reuptake
what happens after a signal is transmitted: The neurotransmitter, its "work" completed, is reabsorbed back into the cell that previously released it.
100
Medulla
Helps control vital processes like your heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure.
101
Cerebellum
Muscle control, including balance and movement. It also plays a role in other cognitive functions such as language processing and memory.
102
Limbic System (4 major parts)
A group of interconnected brain structures that help regulate your emotions and behavior.
- amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate gyrus.
103
4 lobes & functions of the brain
Frontal: higher executive functions including emotional regulation, planning, reasoning and problem solving occur.
Parietal: responsible for integrating sensory information, including touch, temperature, pressure and pain.
Temporal: also contains regions dedicated to processing sensory information, particularly important for hearing, recognizing language, and forming memories. Visual, memory, & auditory information
Occipital lobes: main visual process center of the brain
104
Corpus callosum
A bundle of nerve fibers that allow your brain's left and right hemispheres to communicate.
105
Hemispheric lateralization
A functional dominance of one hemisphere over the other, in which one is more responsible or entirely responsible for control of a function in comparison to the other.
106
Split-brain
A type of disconnection syndrome when the corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is severed to some degree.
107
Pons
The part of the brainstem that links the medulla oblongata and the thalamus.
108
Reticular formation
A complex network of brainstem nuclei and neurons that serve as a major integration and relay center for many vital brain systems to coordinate functions necessary for survival.
109
Broca's Area
Located in the left hemisphere
Is associated with speech production and articulation.
110
Wernicke area
Located in the left hemisphere
Important for the comprehension of speech sounds and is considered to be the receptive language, or language comprehension, centre.
111
Aphasia (types)
Loss of ability to understand or express speech, caused by brain damage.
Types:
- Broca
- Wernicke
- Etc.
112
Brain plasticity
The capacity of the nervous system to change its structure and ultimately its function over a lifetime.
113
Endocrine system
The glands and organs that make hormones and release them directly into the blood so they can travel to tissues and organs all over the body.
114
PET scan
An imaging test that can help reveal the metabolic or biochemical function of your tissues and organs.
The PET scan uses a radioactive drug called a tracer to show both typical and atypical metabolic activity.
115
EEG
A test that measures electrical activity in the brain. This test also is called an EEG.
The test uses small, metal discs called electrodes that attach to the scalp.
Brain cells communicate via electrical impulses, and this activity shows up as wavy lines on an EEG recording.
116
CT Scan
Scan is an imaging test that helps healthcare providers detect diseases and injuries.
It uses a series of X-rays and a computer to create detailed images of your bones and soft tissues.
117
MRI
A noninvasive medical imaging test that produces detailed images of almost every internal structure in the human body, including the organs, bones, muscles and blood vessels.
MRI scanners create images of the body using a large magnet and radio waves.
118
Stroke (Hemorrhagic & ischemic)
A stroke happens when blood flow to your brain is stopped.
An ischemic stroke is caused by a blocked artery in the brain.
A hemorrhagic stroke is caused by leaking or bursting of a blood vessel in the brain.
119
Meningitis (viral & bacterial)
Inflammation of brain and spinal cord membranes, typically caused by an infection.
Meningitis is usually caused by a viral infection but can also be bacterial or fungal.
Vaccines can prevent some forms of meningitis.
Viral meningitis is the most common and least serious type.
Bacterial meningitis is rare, but can be very serious if not treated.
120
Concussion
A type of traumatic brain injury—or TBI—caused by a bump, blow, or jolt to the head or by a hit to the body that causes the head and brain to move rapidly back and forth.
121
Parkinson's Disease
A condition where a part of your brain deteriorates, causing more severe symptoms over time.
122
Alzheimer's Disease
A progressive disease that destroys memory and other important mental functions.
Brain cell connections and the cells themselves degenerate and die, eventually destroying memory and other important mental functions.
123
Stem cells
Cells with the potential to develop into many different types of cells in the body.
They serve as a repair system for the body.
There are two main types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells.
124
Cerebral cortex
The outer layer that lies on top of your cerebrum.
The cerebral cortex carries out essential functions of your brain, like memory, thinking, learning, reasoning, problem-solving, emotions, consciousness, and sensory functions.
125
Sensation
The process that allows our brains to take in information via our five senses, which can then be experienced and interpreted by the brain.
126
Perception
Our recognition and interpretation of sensory information.
And how we respond to the information.
127
Consciousness
The individual awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings,sensations, & environments.
- If you can describe something you are experiencing with words,then it is part of your consciousness
128
Circadian Rhythm
Our internal daily biological clock (approximately 24 hours)
Sleep/wake cycle
129
Jet Lag
Change in time zone & we have to adjust our biological clock.
130
Hypnosis
A state or alternative state of consciousness with a openness to suggestion.
131
Withdrawal
A term used to describe the physical and mental symptoms that a person has when they suddenly stop or cut back the use of an addictive substance, such as opiates and opioids, nicotine products, or alcohol.
132
Tolerance
A fair and objective attitude towards others whose beliefs and lifestyles are different than that which you are experiencing.
133
Microsleep
Sleep episodes that last for 15 seconds or less.
134
N1
Only experience when we go from being awake to asleep.
Transition = wake to asleep
~ Hypinc jerk
~ Imagery, also called hypnagogic hallucinations
~ More like daydreams
~ Usually about 7 minutes, but could be shorter (other determining factors would cause that)
135
N2
Lighter stage of sleep, but harder to wake up
- Heart rate decrease
- Body temperature decrease
-Breathing slower/regular
- Muscles relax
136
N3
Slow-Wave Sleep (SWS)
Where brain activity is the slowest, big & slow waves.
- Blood pressure drops, breathing becomes slower, muscles relax, blood supply to the muscles increases, tissue growth & repairs, heartbeat decreases, & a lot of movement
~ Immune system
~ Slowest brain waves, hardest to waken, will be groggy, disoriented
~ Sleep walking & talking
137
REM
25% of the night, first occurs 90 minutes after asleep & reoccurs every 90 minutes, getting longer later in the night
- Rapid Eye Movement
~ Move back & forth under eyelids
~ Where most of our dreams happen
~ Muscle paralysis, body immobile & relaxed, voluntary movements are temporally paralyzed
~ Provides energy to the brain & body
~ Supports daytime performance
138
Melatonin
A hormone that your brain produces in response to darkness.
It helps regulate other hormones and maintains the body's circadian rhythm.
139
REM rebound
Characterized by an increased frequency, depth, and intensity of REM sleep, often accompanied by vivid dreams, potential disorientation upon waking, confusion, and headaches.
Damage to a certain part of the brain.
Alcohol suppresses REM sleep during the early part of the night, often leading to a REM rebound later.
140
Night terror
Night terrors are sleep disturbances where you partially wake up and experience fear and panic symptoms.
- Do not remember them
- Happens mostly to younger people, children
- Happen in N3
141
Nightmare
An intense dream that may cause terror etc.
- Easily remember them
- Happens to everyone
- Happen in REM
142
Insomnia
A persistent problem with falling Or staying asleep.
Symptoms: lack of concentration or slowness in activity, difficulty falling asleep, & difficulty staying asleep.
Potential causes: lifestyle choices, medication, substances, or sleep habits.
143
Hypersomnia
A state of excessive sleepiness which can result in decreased functioning and affect performance adversely.
144
Narcolepsy
A chronic neurological disorder that affects the brain's ability to control sleep-wake cycles, causes overwhelming daytime drowsiness.
Symptoms: muscle lost, hallucination, etc.
Causes: Involve genetic factors and abnormal signaling in the brain.
Treatments: Stimulants, antidepressants, other medications can help, & therapy.
145
SIDS
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is the sudden and unexplained death of a baby younger than 1 year old.
Risk factors:
- Low birth weight infants.
- Premature infants.
- Sex of the baby-boys have a higher incidence of SIDS.
- Race: African American, American Indian or Native Alaskan babies have a higher risk for SIDS.
- Babies who sleep on their stomachs.
146
Apnea
The temporary cessation of breathing while asleep
Occurs when the upper airway briefly becomes blocked (obstructive sleep apnea) or when the respiratory centers in the brain fail to stimulate respiration (central sleep apnea).
147
Sleepwalking
Occurs in N3, deep sleep
The act of getting up and walking around while asleep.
Not harmful to wake them, they would just be confused
148
Sleep-talking
Occurs in N3, deep REM sleep & lighter nREM sleep
Talking during sleep without being aware of it.
Not harmful to wake them, they would just be confused.
149
Psychodynamic dream theory (+terminology)
Freud goes on to describe that the true meaning of the dream is based on the needs and desires buried in the unconscious.
150
Activation-synthesis theory
The belief that dreams are the brain's way of making sense of random electrical signals created during REM sleep.
151
Learning
The acquisition of knowledge, skill, attitudes, or understanding as a result of experience.
152
Classical conditioning
Includes 2 different stimuli & the subject learns that 1 of those stimuli is often followed by the other.
153
Operant Conditioning
A learning method that uses rewards & punishments to modify voluntary behaviors.
154
Sensory adaptation
The process by which our brain cells become less sensitive to constant stimuli that are picked up by our senses.
155
Habituation
A decrease in an animal or person's response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
156
Dishabituation
A form of recovered or restored behavioral response wherein the reaction towards a known stimulus is enhanced, as opposed to habituation.
157
Acquisition
The initial stage of learning or conditioning.
158
Extinction
The gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing.
159
Stimulus discrimination
The ability to distinguish between one stimulus and similar stimuli.
160
Stimulus generalization
Occurs when an individual responds to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
161
Spontaneous recovery
When a behavior that is believed to be extinct (the conditioned behavior has disappeared or stopped occurring when the stimulus is present) unexpectedly and quickly returns after a period of rest or lessened response.
162
UCS
Unconditioned stimulus
163
UCR
Unconditioned response
164
NS/CS
Conditioned stimulus
165
CR
Conditioned response
166
Reinforcement (+ & -)
+: introduce something pleasant to increase behavior
-: Take away something unpleasant to increase behavior
- Create a favorable condition
167
Punishment (+ & -)
+: Introduce something unpleasant to decrease behavior
-: Take away something pleasant to decrease behavior
(Create a unfavorable condition)
168
4 reinfocement schedules
Rules that control the timing and frequency of reinforcement delivery in operant conditioning.
Fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules
Each dictating a different pattern of rewards in response to a behavior.
169
Primary reinforcers
Things that motivate behavior because they satiate an individual's basic survival needs.
170
Secondary reinforcer
A stimulus that reinforces a behavior after it has been associated with a primary reinforcer.
171
Social reinforcer
A child's behaviors are reinforced by positive social. interactions.
172
Superstitious behaviors
A way people think they can control their fate by performing certain tasks in a certain way to either help alleviate anxiety or to simply better their chances in a certain situation.
173
Shaping
The process of training a learned behavior that would not normally occur.
174
Escape learning
A type of negative reinforcement in which one distances themself once they are presented with an undesirable stimulus or performs a behavior to stop that stimulus once it begins to occur.
175
Avoidance learning
Occurs when an animal or individual performs a behavior that prevents a forthcoming negative stimulus.
176
Cognitive learning (+ maps)
A interesting learning theory that focus on thought.
Map: a mental picture or image of the layout of the physical environment.
177
Latent learning
Refers to knowledge that only becomes clear when a person has an incentive to display it.
178
Observational learning
Describes the process of learning by watching others, retaining the information, and then later replicating the behaviors that were observed.
