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Psych 1200 > Psychology chapter 3 > Flashcards

Psychology chapter 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

evolution

A

the change in the frequency of genes occurring in an interbreeding population over generations

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2
Q

Human Genome Project

A

a massive effort to identify the components of the entire human genome

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3
Q

monozygotic twins

A

come from a single ovum (egg), which makes them genetically identical (almost 100% genetic similarity)

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4
Q

heritability

A

a statistic, expressed as a number between zero and one, that represents the degree to which genetic differences between individuals contribute to individual differences in a behaviour or trait found in a population

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5
Q

evolutionary psychology

A

attempts to explain human behaviours based on the beneficial function(s) they may have served in our species’ development

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6
Q

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A

a molecule formed in a double-helix shape that contains four nucleotides: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine

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7
Q

hunter-gatherer theory

A

links performance on specific tasks to the different roles performed by males and females over the course of our evolutionary history

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8
Q

epigenetics

A

changes in gene expression that occur as a result of experience and that do not alter the genetic code

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9
Q

behavioural genetics

A

the study of how genes and the environment influence behaviour

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10
Q

genes

A

the basic units of heredity; genes are responsible for guiding the process of creating the proteins that make up our physical structures and regulate development and physiological processes throughout the lifespan

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11
Q

homozygous

A

if two corresponding genes at a given location on a pair of chromosomes are the same

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12
Q

heterozygous

A

if two corresponding genes at a given location on a pair of chromosomes differ

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13
Q

longitudinal studies

A

studies that follow the same individuals for many years, often decades

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14
Q

CRISPR

A

a technique that allows genetic material to be removed, added, or altered in specific locations of the genome

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15
Q

natural selection

A

the process by which favourable traits become increasingly common in a population of interbreeding individuals, while traits that are unfavourable become less common

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16
Q

behavioural genomics

A

the study of DNA and the ways in which specific genes are related to behaviour

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17
Q

chromosomes

A

structures in the cellular nucleus that are lined with all of the genes an individual inherits

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18
Q

phenotype

A

the physical traits and behavioural characteristics that show genetic variation, such as eye colour, the shape and size of facial features, intelligence, and even personality

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19
Q

dizygotic twins

A

fraternal twins come from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm cells that share the same womb; these twins have approximately 50% of their genetics in common

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20
Q

genotype

A

the genetic makeup of an organism—the unique set of genes that comprise that individual’s genetic code

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21
Q

endorphin

A

a hormone produced by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus that functions to reduce pain and induce feelings of pleasure

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22
Q

axon terminals

A

bulb-like extensions filled with vesicles (little bags of molecules)

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23
Q

norepinephrine

A

(also known as noradrenaline) a monoamine synthesized from dopamine molecules that is involved in regulating stress responses, including increasing arousal, attention, and heart rate

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24
Q

acetylcholine

A

one of the most widespread neurotransmitters within the body, found at the junctions between nerve cells and skeletal muscles; it is very important for voluntary movement

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25
Q

serotonin

A

a monoamine involved in regulating mood, sleep, aggression, and appetite

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26
Q

stem cells

A

a unique type of cell that does not have a predestined function

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27
Q

resting potential

A

relatively stable state during which the cell is not transmitting messages

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28
Q

cell body

A

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus that houses the cell’s genetic material

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29
Q

neurogenesis

A

the formation of new neurons

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30
Q

ion channels

A

small pores on the neuron’s cell membrane

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31
Q

GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)

A

the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the nervous system, meaning that it prevents neurons from generating action potentials

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32
Q

refractory period

A

1) brief period in which a neuron cannot fire; (2) a time period during which erection and orgasm are not physically possible

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33
Q

presynaptic cell (or presynaptic neuron)

A

is the neuron that releases its neurotransmitters into the synapse

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34
Q

neurotransmitters

A

the chemicals that function as messengers allowing neurons to communicate with each other

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35
Q

agonists

A

drugs that enhance or mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter’s action

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36
Q

adrenal glands

A

a pair of endocrine glands located adjacent to the kidneys that release stress hormones, such as cortisol and epinephrine

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37
Q

action potential

A

a wave of electrical activity that originates at the beginning of the axon near the cell body and rapidly travels down its length

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38
Q

dendrites

A

small branches radiating from the cell body that receive messages from other cells and transmit those messages toward the rest of the cell

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39
Q

myelin

A

a fatty sheath that insulates axons from one another, resulting in increased speed and efficiency of neural communication

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40
Q

axon

A

transports information in the form of electrochemical reactions from the cell body to the end of the neuron

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41
Q

hormones

A

chemicals secreted by the glands of the endocrine system

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42
Q

glial cells

A

specialized cells of the nervous system that are involved in mounting immune responses in the brain, removing waste, and synchronizing the activity of the billions of neurons that constitute the nervous system

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43
Q

synapse

A

an area consisting of a neuron’s axon terminals and a different neuron’s dendrites; these structures are separated by a microscopic space into which neurotransmitters can be released

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44
Q

hypothalamus

A

a set of nuclei found on the bottom surface of the brain that are involved in regulating motivation and homeostasis by stimulating the release of hormones throughout the body

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45
Q

testosterone

A

a hormone that is involved in the development of sex characteristics and the motivation of sexual behaviour

46
Q

endorphin

A

a hormone produced by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus that functions to reduce pain and induce feelings of pleasure

47
Q

postsynaptic cell (or postsynaptic neuron)

A

is the neuron that receives neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cell

48
Q

epinephrine

A

a hormone and neurotransmitter created in the adrenal gland on the kidneys

49
Q

all-or-none principle

A

individual nerve cells fire at the same strength every time an action potential occurs

50
Q

pituitary gland

A

the master gland of the endocrine system that produces hormones and sends commands about hormone production to the other glands of the endocrine system

51
Q

glutamate

A

most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brains of vertebrates

52
Q

neurons

A

one of the major types of cells found in the nervous system, which are responsible for sending and receiving messages throughout the body

53
Q

reuptake

A

a process whereby neurotransmitter molecules that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron

54
Q

synaptic cleft

A

the minute space between the axon terminal (terminal button) and the dendrite

55
Q

antagonists

A

i nhibit neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing synthesis of a neurotransmitter

56
Q

dopamine

A

a monoamine neurotransmitter involved in such varied functions as mood, control of voluntary movement, and processing of rewarding experiences

57
Q

multiple sclerosis

A

a disease in which the immune system does not recognize myelin and attacks it—a process that can devastate the structural and functional integrity of the nervous system

58
Q

cerebral cortex

A

the convoluted, wrinkled outer layer of the brain that is involved in multiple higher functions, such as thought, language, and personality

59
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

the portion of the peripheral nervous system responsible for regulating the activity of organs and glands

60
Q

hippocampus

A

critical for learning and memory, particularly the formation of new memories

61
Q

cerebral hemispheres

A

nearly symmetrical halves of the brain that contain the same structures

62
Q

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

a division of the nervous system that transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body and is divided into two subcomponents, the somatic system and the autonomic system

63
Q

neuroplasticity

A

the capacity of the brain to change and rewire itself based on individual experience

64
Q

thalamus

A

a set of nuclei involved in relaying sensory information to different regions of the brain

65
Q

amygdala

A

facilitates memory formation for emotional events, mediates fear responses, and appears to play a role in recognizing and interpreting emotional stimuli, including facial expressions

66
Q

corpus callosum

A

a collection of neural fibres connecting the two cerebral hemispheres

67
Q

somatic nervous system

A

consists of nerves that control skeletal muscles, which are responsible for voluntary and reflexive movement; it also consists of nerves that receive sensory input from the body

68
Q

Huntington’s disease

A

a condition involving uncontrollable movements of the body, head, and face

69
Q

brainstem

A

the “stem” or bottom of the brain and consists of two structures: the medulla and the pons

70
Q

forebrain

A

the most visibly obvious region of the brain, consists of all of the neural structures that are located above the midbrain, including all of the folds and grooves on the outer surface of the brain; the multiple interconnected structures in the forebrain are critical to such complex processes as emotion, memory, thinking, and reasoning

71
Q

limbic system

A

an integrated network involved in emotion and memory

72
Q

frontal lobes

A

important in numerous higher cognitive functions, such as planning, regulating impulses and emotions, language production, and voluntary movement

73
Q

hemispheric specialization

A

a phenomenon where the two sides of the cortex often perform very different functions

74
Q

trophic factors

A

can stimulate the growth of new dendrites and axons

75
Q

temporal lobes

A

located at the sides of the brain near the ears and are involved in hearing, language, and some higher-level aspects of vision such as object and face recognition

76
Q

neglect (or visual neglect)

A

a situation in which the patient does not attend to anything that appears in the left half of his or her visual field

77
Q

cerebellum

A

(Latin for “little brain”) is the lobe-like structure at the base of the brain that is involved in the monitoring of movement, maintaining balance, attention, and emotional responses

78
Q

Tourette’s syndrome

A

a condition marked by erratic and repetitive facial and muscle movements (called tics), heavy eye blinking, and frequent noise making such as grunting, snorting, or sniffing

79
Q

reticular formation

A

extends from the medulla upwards to the midbrain (described shortly) and is involved with attention and alertness

80
Q

cortical deafness

A

problems with hearing despite the fact that the patient’s ears work perfectly

81
Q

basal ganglia

A

a group of three structures that are involved in facilitating planned movements, skill learning, and integrating sensory and movement information with the brain’s reward system

82
Q

occipital lobes

A

located at the rear of the brain and are where visual information is processed

83
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

responsible for the fight-or-flight response of an increased heart rate, dilated pupils, and decreased salivary flow—responses that prepare the body for action

84
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

helps maintain homeostatic balance in the presence of change; following sympathetic arousal, it works to return the body to a baseline, nonemergency state

85
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

a condition marked by major impairments in voluntary movement

86
Q

parietal lobes

A

involved in our experiences of touch as well our bodily awareness

87
Q

central nervous system (CNS)

A

consists of the brain and the spinal cord

88
Q

midbrain

A

resides just above the hindbrain, primarily functions as a relay station between sensory and motor areas

89
Q

lesioning

A

a technique in which researchers intentionally damage an area in the brain

90
Q

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A

a procedure in which an electromagnetic pulse is delivered to a targeted region of the brain

91
Q

positron emission tomography (PET)

A

a type of scan in which a low level of a radioactive isotope is injected into the blood, and its movement to regions of the brain engaged in a particular task is measured

92
Q

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

A

a form of structural neuroimaging allowing researchers or medical personnel to measure white-matter pathways in the brain

93
Q

computerized tomography (CT) scan

A

a structural neuroimaging technique in which x-rays are sent through the brain by a tube that rotates around the head

94
Q

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

measures brain activity by detecting the influx of oxygen-rich blood into neural areas that were just active

95
Q

functional neuroimaging

A

a type of brain scanning that provides information about which areas of the brain are active when a person performs a particular behaviour

96
Q

sham group (or sham lesion group)

A

a set of animals that go through all of the surgical procedures aside from the lesion itself in order to control for the effects of stress, anesthesia, and the annoyance of stitches. An example of the lesion method is found in studies of spatial learning

97
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

a structural imaging technique in which clear images of the brain are created based on how different neural regions absorb and release energy while in a magnetic field

98
Q

magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

a neuroimaging technique that measures the tiny magnetic fields created by the electrical activity of nerve cells in the brain

99
Q

structural neuroimaging

A

a type of brain scanning that produces images of the different structures of the brain

100
Q

electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

measures patterns of brain activity with the use of multiple electrodes attached to the scalp

101
Q

What are behaviours influenced by?

A

genes

102
Q

How many genes do humans have

A

20 000- 25 000

6000 and 7000 are active in the human brain.

103
Q

Which group provides insight into how genetics affect behaviour

A

twins

104
Q

A heritability of 0 or 1

A

means that genes do not contribute to individual differences in a trait, whereas a heritability of 1.0 indicates that genes account for all individual differences in a trait.

105
Q

What do heritability scores tell us?

A

tell us the degree to which genetics explain differences between people with that trait. S

106
Q

When studying adopted children

A

the biological parents are the nature and adopted family is nurture

107
Q

What factors can influence whether genes are turned on or off

A

diet, stress level, and sleep

108
Q

What separated our species, Homo sapiens, from other animals?

A

(1) larger frontal lobes than other species

(2) had brains with more folds, thus allowing for more brain cells to be squeezed inside their skulls.

109
Q

What is the primary purpose of neurons?

A

is to “fire,” to receive input from one group of neurons and to then transmit that information to other neurons

110
Q

axon hillock

A

These impulses from other cells will travel across the neuron to the base of the cell body
If the axon hillock receives enough stimulation from other neurons, it will initiate a chemical reaction that will flow down the rest of the neuron.

Psych 1200 (6 decks)

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