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Psych 1200 > Psychology Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Psychology Chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

appeal to authority

A

the belief in an “expert’s” claim even when no supporting data or scientific evidence is present

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2
Q

convenience samples

A

samples of individuals who are the most readily available

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3
Q

operational definitions

A

statements that describe the procedures (or operations) and specific measures that are used to record observations
By carefully defining psychological terms such as “intelligence” or “happiness,” everyone can understand exactly how these variables are being objectively measured.

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4
Q

peer review

A

a process in which papers submitted for publication in scholarly journals are read and critiqued by experts in the specific field of study

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5
Q

Hawthorne effect

A

behaviour change that occurs as a result of being observed

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6
Q

replication

A

the process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time

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7
Q

single-blind study

A

a study in which participants do not know the true purpose of the study, or else do not know which type of treatment they are receiving (for example, a placebo or a drug)

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8
Q

generalizability

A

the degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations, individuals, or events

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9
Q

social desirability (or socially desirable responding)

A

research participants respond in ways that increase the chances that they will be viewed favourably

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10
Q

sample

A

a select group of population members

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11
Q

objective measurements

A

the measure of an entity or behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers
ex- behaviour

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12
Q

random sample

A

a sampling technique in which every individual of a population has an equal chance of being included

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13
Q

ecological validity

A

the results of a laboratory study can be applied to or repeated in the natural environment

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14
Q

validity

A

the degree to which an instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims to measure

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15
Q

placebo effect

A

a measurable and experienced improvement in health or behaviour that cannot be attributable to a medication or treatment
the participants believe the pill or liquid they are consuming is actually a drug. If they knew that they were receiving a placebo instead of a pain medication, they would not experience any pain relief.

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16
Q

appeal to common sense

A

a claim that appears to be sound, but lacks supporting scientific evidence

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17
Q

demand characteristics

A

inadvertent cues given off by the experimenter or the experimental context that provide information about how participants are expected to behave

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18
Q

population

A

the group that researchers want to generalize about

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19
Q

falsifiable

A

the hypothesis is precise enough that it could be proven false

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20
Q

anecdotal evidence

A

an individual’s story or testimony about an observation or event that is used to make a claim as evidence

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21
Q

reliability

A

consistent and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time

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22
Q

double-blind study

A

a study in which neither the participant nor the experimenter knows the exact treatment for any individual

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23
Q

variable

A

the object, concept, or event being measured

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24
Q

dependent variable

A

the observation or measurement that is recorded during the experiment and subsequently compared across all groups

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25
Q

qualitative research

A

examining an issue or behaviour without performing numerical measurements of the variables

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26
Q

self-reporting

A

a method in which responses are provided directly by the people who are being studied, typically through face-to-face interviews, phone surveys, paper and pencil tests, and web-based questionnaires

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27
Q

research design

A

a set of methods that allows a hypothesis to be tested

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28
Q

experimental group

A

the group in the experiment that receives a treatment or the stimuli targeting a specific behaviour

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29
Q

between-subjects design

A

an experimental design in which we compare the performance of participants who are in different groups

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30
Q

case study

A

an in-depth report about the details of a specific case

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31
Q

illusory correlations

A

relationships that really exist only in the mind, rather than in reality

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32
Q

correlational research

A

involves measuring the degree of association between two or more variables

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33
Q

independent variable

A

the variable that the experimenter manipulates to distinguish between two or more groups

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34
Q

quantitative research

A

examining an issue or behaviour by using numerical measurements and/or statistics

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35
Q

control group

A

the group that does not receive the treatment or stimuli targeting a specific behaviour; this group therefore serves as a baseline to which the experimental group is compared

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36
Q

quasi-experimental research

A

a research technique in which the two or more groups that are compared are selected based on predetermined characteristics, rather than random assignment

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37
Q

confounding variable

A

a variable outside of the researcher’s control that might affect or provide an alternative explanation for the results

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38
Q

random assignment

A

a technique for dividing samples into two or more groups in which participants are equally likely to be placed in any condition of the experiment

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39
Q

within-subjects design

A

an experimental design in which the same participants respond to all types of stimuli or experience all experimental conditions

40
Q

naturalistic observation

A

observations that unobtrusively observe and record behaviour as it occurs in the subject’s natural environment

41
Q

third variable problem

A

the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable is actually responsible for a well-established correlation between two variables

42
Q

deception

A

misleading or only partially informing participants of the true topic or hypothesis under investigation

43
Q

informed consent

A

a potential volunteer must be informed (know the purpose, tasks, and risks involved in the study) and give consent (agree to participate based on the information provided) without pressure

44
Q

research ethics board (REB)

A

a committee of researchers and officials at an institution charged with the protection of research participants

45
Q

debriefing

A

when researchers explain the true nature of the study, and especially the nature of and reason for any deception

46
Q

hypothesis test

A

a statistical method of evaluating whether differences among groups are meaningful, or could have been arrived at by chance alone

47
Q

frequency

A

the number of observations that fall within a certain category or range of scores

48
Q

experimental hypothesis

A

assumes that any differences are due to a variable controlled by the experimenter

49
Q

normal distribution

A

a symmetrical distribution with values clustered around a central, mean value

50
Q

central tendency

A

a measure of the central point of a distribution

51
Q

descriptive statistics

A

a set of techniques used to organize, summarize, and interpret data

52
Q

negatively skewed distribution

A

a distribution in which the curve has an extended tail to the left of the cluster

53
Q

mean

A

the arithmetic average of a set of numbers

54
Q

variability

A

the degree to which scores are dispersed in a distribution

55
Q

median

A

the 50th percentile—the point on the horizontal axis at which 50% of all observations are lower, and 50% of all observations are higher

56
Q

mode

A

the category with the highest frequency (that is, the category with the most observations)

57
Q

standard deviation

A

a measure of variability around the mean

58
Q

null hypothesis

A

assumes that any differences between groups (or conditions) are due to chance

59
Q

positively skewed distribution

A

a distribution in which the long tail is on the right of the cluster

60
Q

statistical significance

A

the means of the groups are farther apart than you would expect them to be by random chance alone

61
Q

What are the Five Characteristics of Quality Scientific Research?

A
  1. It is based on measurements that areobjective, valid, andreliable.
  2. It can begeneralized.
  3. It uses techniques thatreduce bias.
  4. It is madepublic.
  5. It can bereplicated.
62
Q

What are 2 essential components of scientific research?

A

Reliability and validity

63
Q

What is one way to increase the possibility that research results will generalize?

A

study a large group of participants- ideally a population but sample can be used and then generalize those results to everyone in population

64
Q

researcher bias

A

various types of bias can be unintentionally introduced by the researchers

65
Q

subject biases or participant biases

A

It is also possible for the participants, including animals, to introduce their own bias
this bias will involve a participant trying to figure out what the experimenters are testing or trying to predict the responses that the researchers are hoping to find.

66
Q

Anonymity

A

individual’s responses are recorded without any name or other personal information that could link a particular individual to specific results

67
Q

What are the best techniques for reducing subject bias?

A

to provide anonymity and confidentiality to the volunteers

68
Q

Anonymity

A

individual’s responses are recorded without any name or other personal information that could link a particular individual to specific results

69
Q

Confidentiality

A

the results will be seen only by the researcher

70
Q

What kind of procedures should experiments involving drugs use?

A

blind procedures

71
Q

What is Psychology’s primary mode of communication?

A

through academic journals

72
Q

publication bias

A

which successful and novel results are published and studies that showed no effects are not

73
Q

What are Five Characteristics of Poor Research?

A

It produces untestable hypotheses.
It relies on anecdotes and personal experiences.
It includes a biased selection of data.
It makes appeals to authority rather than facts.
It makes appeals to common sense

74
Q

Research designs influence how investigators

A

1) organize the stimuli used to test the hypothesis,
(2) make observations and measurements,
(3) evaluate the results.

75
Q

Data.

A

When scientists collect observations about the variables of interest, the information they record is called data.

76
Q

How do researchers usually gather data?

A

using one or more of the following designs: case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys and questionnaires.

77
Q

Negative Correlation

A

when increase in one variable causes decrease in the other
ex- temperature goes down, sweater wearing goes up
When the dots on a scatterplot show a pattern that is slanted downward to the right,

78
Q

Positive Correlation:

A

when increase in one variable causes increase in the other

ex- income and educational level

79
Q

Zero Correlation

A

when scatterplot is random with no patterns, this means correlation between two variables is zero

80
Q

A correlation coefficient of zero

A

there is no relationship between the two variables

81
Q

A coefficient of +1.0

A

means that there is a very strong positive correlation between the variables

82
Q

A coefficient of −1.0

A

means that there is a very strong negative correlation between the variables

83
Q

What are 2 key differences between correlational research and experiments?

A

the random assignment of the participants and the researcher’s experimental control over the variables being studied.

84
Q

converging operations

A

when a theory’s predictions hold up to dozens of tests using a variety of designs

85
Q

The REBs are intended to protect individuals in two main ways:

A

1) The committee weighs potential risks to the volunteers against the possible benefits of the research,
2) it requires that volunteers agree to participate in the research (i.e., they give informed consent).

86
Q

What should volunteers at least be told?

A

the topic of the study
the nature of any stimuli to which they will be exposed (e.g., images, sounds, smells)
the nature of any tasks they will complete (e.g., tests, puzzles)
the approximate duration of the study
any potential physical, psychological, or social risks involved
the steps that the researchers have taken to minimize those risks

87
Q

observe unconscious mimicry

A

the tendency for people to take on the gestures, postures, or other physical mannerisms of others during a conversation.

88
Q

descriptive statistics

A

a set of techniques used to organize, summarize, and interpret data

89
Q

three types of stats?

A

Frequency
central tendency
variability

90
Q

normal distribution

A

(sometimes called the bell curve), a symmetrical distribution with values clustered around a central, mean value.

91
Q

subjective

A

observations that are shaped by prior beliefs, expectations, experiences, and even mood.

92
Q

objective

A

suggests that everyone should be able to agree on certain facts given the same tools, the same methods, and the same context.

93
Q

“Mozart effect”

A

Listening to classical music appears to have only a small, short-lasting effect on spatial reasoning.

94
Q

descriptive research

A

is to simply describe the thing being studied. In psychology, this is usually accomplished by using case studies, naturalistic observation, or surveys and questionnaires.

95
Q

experimental design

A

are used for determining cause-and-effect relationships.

Psych 1200 (6 decks)

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