Psychology 1 Flashcards
1
Q
- Visually compare:
- sensory
- working
- short & long term
- procedural
- episodic, &
- semantic memory
A
2
Q
What does the Herman Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve look like?
A
3
Q
- Graph cumulative # of responses vs. Time for The 4 Reinforcement Schedules:
- Fixed ratio (FR)
- Fixed-interval (FI)
- Variable- ratio (VR)
- Variable-interval (VI)
A
4
Q
Compare Stimulus (+ and -) with Behavior (+ and -)
graphically
A
5
Q
- Where on the brain is the:
- pons
- cerebral cortex
- thalamus
- hypothalamus
- medulla oblongata
- brain stem
- midbrain
- pituitary gland
A
6
Q
- Where in the brain is the:
- hypothalamic nuclei
- amygdala
- hippocampus
- cingulate gyrus
- corpus callosum
- thalamus
A
7
Q
- Where in the brain is the:
- frontal lobe
- temporal lobe
- parietal lobe
- occipital lobe
- brainstem
(Visual cortex)
A
8
Q
- Where in the brain is the:
- frontal lobe
- somatomotor cortex
- somatosensory cortex
- parietal lobe
- occipital lobe
- cerebellum
- spinal cord
- medulla oblongata
- temporal lobe
A
9
Q
- Draw the diagram connecting signal detection theory and response bias
- Know how they are interrelated
A
10
Q
- Label the following in the eye:
- cornea
- sclera
- pupil
- iris
- aqueous humor
- vitreous humor
- lens
- ciliary muscles
- retina
- optic nerve
A
11
Q
- What happens with regular eye sight, near sightedness (myopia), and far sightedness (hyperopia) with regards to:
- where the image comes into focus, and
- location of the retina?
A
- Normally:
- image focuses directly ON the retina
- NS: elongation of eye (or other causes) make the image come into focus too soon
- This was your problem…also this is why squinting, you were able to see images better. compresses eye, brings image more into focus
- FR: shorter eye, image comes into focus too late
12
Q
- Draw a diagram of the layers of the retina.
- Indicate the location of the following cells:
- a) rods
- b) cones
- d) bipolar cells
- e) horizontal cells
- f) amacrine cells
- g) ganglion cells
- h) optic nerve fibers
- Indicate the direction of signal flow through these cells.
- What is the purpose of these multiple layers of cells?
- Indicate the location of the following cells:
A
13
Q
- Draw a diagram of the eyes, the optic nerve and the brain
- Demonstrate how it is possible that the left hemisphere of the brain receives all of the visual input for the left half of the visual field of BOTH eyes
A
14
Q
Draw and label all of the parts of the inner ear and describe their function.
A
15
Q
The Ear
- Draw a cross-section of the COCHLEA
- Show:
- the three COMPARTMENTS
- the organ of Corti
- Show:
A
16
Q
When you see “memory,” think:
A
storage & retrieval of information
17
Q
When you see “learning,” think:
A
a relatively long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience
18
Q
Define “encoding”
A
- the initial process of memory creation, including:
- sensation
- transient storage of the information in working memory
19
Q
Automatic vs controlled processing
A
- automatic requires no attention or conscious effort
- controlled does
- If controlled is repeated over a long period of time, it can become automatic processing
20
Q
Define maintenance rehearsal
A
the rote, repetitive rehearsal of new info w/o thinking about its meaning or context
21
Q
Maintenance rehearsal can only maintain information in…?
A
- the working memory, or at MOST create a weak, short-lived long term memory
- it is BAD
22
Q
Define Elaborative (or “___” ) rehearsal
A
- or “semantic” rehearsal
- the rehearsal of new information by THINKING about its meaning, purpose, and relationship to previously-known concepts
- its good!!
23
Q
Name & describe the 3 types of encoding
A
- Visual
- encoding of an image or visualization
- Acoustic
- encoding or a sound
- Semantic
- encoding or meaning, understanding, or a concept’s interrelation with other stored information
- THE BEST METHOD
24
Q
Processes that aide in encoding memories (4)
A
- Mnemonics
- Chunking
- Peg-word system
- Loci method
25
State-dependent learning
* if a memory is encoded in a particular PLACE or setting, or in conjunction with a sight or sound, recall is enhanced when attempted in a matching state
26
The testing effect
* testing (forced active recall) during the learning phase dramatically **increases retention**
27
The expensive memory principle
easy learning processes produce memories that are EASILY forgotten (and vice-versa)
28
shallow processing, aka
structural or phonemic processing
29
Structural processing is encoding what?
what things look like
30
Phonemic processing is encoding what?
* what things ***sound*** like
* like repeating a term in one's head
31
* Both structural and phonemic processing involve only what?
* What do they produce?
* Only involve maintenance rehearsal
* Produce weak, short-lived memories
32
Deep, aka "\_\_\_" processing involves what?
* aka "semantic"
* Involves:
* Encoding the MEANING of a concept, the CONTEXT surrounding a concept,
* or making relational connections to other previously encoded memories
33
* Semantic processing involves what with regards to "learning"?
* What does it produce?
* "elaborative" rehearsal
* produces strong, long-term memories
34
Self-reference effect
* the brain encodes info ***more easily*** (and forms stronger memories) when info being encoded is more closely related to oneself
35
What is a mnemonic?
* Refers to any pattern of letters, symbols, or associations
* that help one remember something
36
Peg-word system
* Words represent numbers--this forms the "peg" then, to rapidly memorize a list of objects you associate each object with its appropriate peg
* ex: associate the number 1 with "gun" or a candle (looks like the #1)
37
Loci method
* associate words to be remembered with:
* ***visual*** checkpoints
* objects within a room, along a path somewhere, etc.
38
Define "chunking"
* lumping of information together helps you remember
* ex: remembering 295-274-9274 is easier than remembering 2952749274
39
Name the 7 types of memory
1. sensory
2. working
3. short-term
4. long-term(LTM)
5. procedural
6. episodic
7. semantic
40
* For **long-term** memory, differentiate b/t **explicit** and **implicit** memory
* **_Explicit (aka "Declarative"_**)
* requires conscious, intentional recall
* **_Implicit (aka "Procedural")_**
* automatic, unconscious recall
* usually of skills, procedures, or conditioned responses
41
What does a "semantic network" describe?
its a theory for explaining how our LTM stores concepts and the relationships among them.
42
What 5 things does the theory of Semantic Networks propose?
1. The LTM is a web-like network of concepts
2. Each concept is called a "node"
* represented as circles or ovals
3. Relationships b/t concepts are represented by connecting lines or arrows
* Length of arrow is ***inversely proportional*** to strength of assn b/t concepts
4. Each node can be (and usually is) connected to multiple **related** nodes
5. 2 types of links: Superordinate and Modifier
* **_Superordinate links_** connect the concept to a CATEGORY name
* indicating the concept is a **member** of that larger class
* cat--\>mammal
* **_Modifier links_** connect a concept to its properties
* cat--\> whiskers
43
In Semantic Networks, what are the 2 types of links b/t nodes?
**_Superordinate and modifier_**
## Footnote
1. Superordinate links
* connect the concept to a CATEGORY name
* indicating the concept is a member of that larger class
* cat--\>mammal
2. Modifier links
* connect a concept to its properties
* cat--\> whiskers
44
* How do Semantic Networks process recall events?
* Describe it
* via "spreading activation"
* when working memory focuses attention on a node (A), any nodes directly connected to that node (B, C, D, whatever) are connected FIRST
* Next, any nodes connected to THOSE nodes (B,C,D) are activated, and so on
* This is called the "spreading" effect
45
In Semantic Networks, speed of connection of nodes is...?
* NOT equivalent!
* stronger semantic connections (that are tied to you more closely) **fire more rapidly** and **are more easily recalled**
* Frequently used connections also fire more rapidly
46
Retrieval is...
any use or application of a stored memory
47
What are the 3 forms of retrieval?
1. Recall
2. Recognition
3. Relearning
48
Define recall, recognition, & relearning
1. Recall
* retrieval and active statement or correct application of a memory
2. Recognition
* associating information with an existing memory
3. Relearning
* increased learning efficacy when reinforcing an existing memory
49
Priming effect
* Presenting a **related** word **FIRST** increases recall or verification rate
* doctor before nurse speeds up recognition
* doctor=primer
* nurse=target
50
Typicality effect
* Using an ***example of a concept*** increases recall or verification rate
* "a robin is a bird" verified ***more quickly*** than "a penguin is a bird"
51
Familiarity effect
* **increasing** level of familiarity with the example **increases** recall or verification rate
* "a dog is a mammal" verified more readily than "an aardvark is a mammal"
52
True-false effect
true statements are verified more quickly than false statements are negated
53
Category size effect
* recall & verification rate **increase** if category has few members
* ...and **decrease** if category has ***many members***
* "a poodle is a dog" is verified faster than "a poodle is a mammal"
54
Serial-position effect
* Presentation ***order*** (or positioning in a list) impacts recall
* PRIMACY effect
* Predicts that concepts listed **FIRST** will be remembered at a **higher** rate
* RECENCY effect
* predicts that concepts listed **LAST** will be remembered at a **higher** rate
55
interference effects
* a new memory that is very similar to an existing one can cause interference, or increased difficulty recalling the original memory
* memorizing a 2nd phone number ***makes remembering other harder***
56
Proactive interference
* when old memories interfere with formation of new ones
* you keep forgetting your new # because you keep remembering your old #
57
retroactive interference
* when **new memories interfere** with **old** ones
* forgot your old # because you memorized your new #
58
"Automatic spreading activation" occurs when the **primer** is a \_\_\_\_, and the **target** is a/n \_\_\_\_\_\_
* is said to occur when the primer is a **category** **NAME**
* ...and the target is an **example WITHIN** that category
59
* Role of emotion in memory
* heightened emotional states
memories coded during heightened emotional states are usually remembered more easily
60
Role of emotion in memory: emotional interference
heightened emotions wrt one memory can simultaneously increase strength of LTM trace for that concept, and DECREASE strength of other memories occurring immediately before or during emotional event
61
* Role of emotion in memory
* positive vs negative recall
* positive memories usually **remembered** more easily
* negative ones **forgotten** more easily
62
Individuals suffering from depression often remember what 2 just equally?
positive AND negative memories more easily
63
Older adults tend to show a stronger recall bias for (positive/negative?) memories
positive
64
* Role of emotion in memory
* State-dependent learning
* **Similarity** in states in which a memory is encoded and retrieved **enhances recall**
* *This includes mood* or emotions present during encoding
65
Max brain size occurs in one's \_\_\_'s and decreases with age thereafter
20's
66
What 2 types of memory decline the MOST/ most noticeably with age?
1. Episodic memory
* "What did I do last friday? Where was I when the Trade Towers collapsed?"
2. Source memory
* "Where did I read about this concept? Who told me about the Trade Towers collapsing?"
67
What memory type goes through LITTLE TO NO decline with age?
Semantic memory
68
* Describe Alzheimer's Disease
* is a ___ disease characterized by \_\_\_(3)?
* At what age does onset usually occur?
* What are some late-stage symptoms?
* Neurodegenerative disease characterized by
1. memory loss
2. impaired cognition
3. language deterioration
* usually occurs ~65 or greater
* late-stage symptoms are more severe and include:
* loss of judgement
* confusion
* drastic mood and personality changes
69
* Physiological changes (aka biological "markers") of Alzheimer's Disease
* What happens outside the cell and what happens inside the cell?
**_OUTSIDE:_**
## Footnote
* In b/t CNS and neurons (OUTSIDE the cell), ß amyloids and portions of Amyloid Precursor Protein ("APP") are normally snipped off and recycled in healthy individuals
* ...but in Alzheimer's patients they aggregate into ß amyloid plaques
**_INSIDE:_**
* The Tau protein (a struc protein associated with microtubules) undergoes hyperphosphorylation
* this causes the modified Tau proteins to aggregate into insoluble **neurofibrillary tangles**
* This causes the size of the actual brain itself to DECREASE!
* Size of the ventricles **increase**, while size of the hippocampus **decreases**
70
Korsakoff's Syndrome
* A brain disorder resulting from ***severe Thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency***
* Usually from *chronic alcohol abuse*
71
In Korsakoff's syndrome, what happens to hurt Thiamine production?
* Alcohol inhibits conversion of thiamine to its active form, Thiamine Pyrophosphate (TPP)
* Alcoholics:
* vomit frequently
* have inflammed GI linings
* usually have worse eating habits
* ***All of these*** contribute to vitamin B deficiency
72
* ___ \_\_\_ precedes Korsakoff's Syndrome
* What is it?
* Wernicke's Encephalopathy
* Its a mild version of Korsakoff's Syndrome
73
* How is Wernicke's Encephalopathy treated?
* by intravenous vitamin injections
* by NOT DRINKING ANYMORE!!
74
* Define "Amnesia"
* What 3 things can cause it?
* the loss of memory as a result of:
1. brain damage
2. injury
3. psychological trauma
75
* What makes amnesia different from forgetting?
* **_Forgetting_**
* is a result of ***NORMAL*** loss of recall
* as a result of a *fading memory trace*
* **_Amnesia_**
* is loss of memory due to:
* brain damage
* injury, or
* psychological trauma
76
* **_Anterograde_** amnesia
* Define
* How does it affect LTMs?
***_=Inability to create new memories_***
## Footnote
* occurring ***AFTER*** the event that *caused* amnesia
* LTMs from *before* event _remain intact_
77
* **Retrograde** amnesia
* Define
* Memories created ***PRIOR*** to event *cannot* be remembered
* but *new* memories ***CAN*** be created
78
* Dementia
* Define
* a gradual, long-term decline in one's general mental function or capability
* Is severe enough to ***interfere with one's daily life***
79
Describe:
## Footnote
* **"Prospective** memory"
* Give some examples or **POOR** Prospective Memory
* the ability to *remember to do something* at some **FUTURE TIME**
* ex: patient **forgets** to take their medication (**poor** Prospective Memory), forgetting to return a library book, etc.
80
* Memory Construction:
* The \_\_\_, \_\_\_, or ___ of *what kind* of memories?
1. Creation
2. Fabrication, or
3. Recall
of ***FALSE MEMORIES!***
81
* Confabulation
* Define it
* What 2 things is it usually observed in?
is the fabrication of **false**, but usually **vivid** and **detailed** memories
* in order to **fill in the gaps** in a coherent story or memory
Usually observed in people with:
1. Alzheimers
2. Korsakoff's
82
* Describe the "Misinformation Effect"
* the **presentation** of *inaccurate* post-event information can:
* cause an otherwise ACCURATE memory to be altered and recalled ***INACCURATELY***
83
* Source monitoring errors
* sometimes called "\_\_\_ \_\_\_"
* define
* recall errors in which the ***source*** of the memory is ***inaccurately identified***
* Sometimes called "source amnesia"
84
* During recall, the individual makes one of two judgments to determine the SOURCE: (2)
1. **_Heuristic Judgments:_**
* UNCONSCIOUS determination of the source ***based on clues or short-cuts*** associated with the memory
2. **_Systematic Judgments:_**
* CONSCIOUS determination of the source based on ***intentional, logical evaluation*** of the details remembered
85
* Physical changes to ___ \_\_\_ (in the brain) account for learning & memory
* changes to ***neuronal synapsis***
86
* Define "neural plasticity"
* What 3 things change?
* refers to ability of the *brain* and *its neurons* to ***physically CHANGE in response to stimuli***
1. synapses
2. dendrites
3. glial cells
87
*Plasticity* is closely associated with 3 events/processes:
1. Development
2. Memory storage (learning)
3. CNS injury
88
Compared to adult brains, baby brains contain: (3)
* **SAME** number of neurons
* **MORE** synapses
* **FEWER** glial cells
* glial cells=support cells, like oligodendrocytes
89
Describe Synaptic Pruning during development
* Number of synapses ***decrease*** through:
* selective destruction of some synapses
* strengthening of others
* **_WEAKEST/LEAST FREQUENTLY USED_**
* Get pruned out
* **_STRONGEST/MOST FREQUENTLY USED_**
* Get strengthened
90
* How does neural plasticity work:
* during Memory Storage (learning)?
* Its theorized that STM may result from ***TEMPORARY*** chemical or electrical traces that *fade quickly*
* LTM traces, however, are always result of ***PHYSICAL*** changes to neuron itself
91
* LTM **traces** (unlike STM **traces**), are always the result of what?
* PHYSICAL changes to the neuron itself
* A neuron can:
1. ***Grow additional dendrites***
* to strengthen neuronal connection
2. ***Alter the synaptic membrane*** to either increase or decrease the strength of an individual synapse
92
* Describe Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
* What thing has been found to have ***(+) correlation*** with LTP?
* is the persistent **strengthening** **of a synapse**
* ...based on *increased activity at that particular synapse*
* ***An increase in gene expression*** (transcription and translation of the gene product protein) ***has (+) correlation with LTP***
93
* Describe Long-Term ***Depression*** (LTD)
* What is it the opposite of?
* is the persistent ***WEAKENING of a synapse***
* ...due to decreased activity
* The opposite of Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
94
* How does synaptic pruning work after a CNS injury?
* after a traumatic brain injury, portions of the brain will sometimes ***reassign function to a different brain location***
* In severe cases, one full HEMISPHERE (!!) is removed so as to prevent seizures
* If this happens early enough in life, the remaining hemisphere takes over ALL function from the broken hemisphere and the pt can live a normal life! YAY!
95
* Describe "Habituation"
* a ***decreased*** response to a stimulus
* ...*after the stimulus has been presented multiple times*
* Basically, it's a reduced response ***observed for an _INNATE_ (unconscious) behavior***
96
Dishabituation is...?
* an ***increased response*** to a stimulus
* *after* habituation has ALREADY occurred
* The old stimulus is suddenly reacted to ***_as if it were NEW_***
97
When does dishabituation usually occur?
* after a long period of stimulation
* (when habituation is becoming significant)
* ...and ***a second stimulus is then introduced***
* This _disrupts_ the process of habituation
98
Give an example of habituation
* A turtle brings its head under its shell when you touch its shell
* after being touched enough times, ***the turtle realizes it's not in danger*** and ***no longer hides***
99
Give an example of "Dishabituation"
* Playing Peek-a-boo with a baby
* when we respond to an **old** stimulus *as if it were new again*
100
* Define Sensitization
* What's it the opposite of?
* an ***INCREASED response*** to a stimulus
* *after the stimulus has been presented multiple times*
* is the **OPPOSITE of habituation**
101
What's an example of Sensitization?
* You become very sensitive to subtle vibrations in your car after you've driven it for a long time
* You know something is "off"
102
Define Classical Conditioning
* learning to ***associate one stimulus*** with ***another***
103
When you see "Classical conditioning," think:
* Classical conditioning=
* ***INSTINCTUAL*** responses!
104
What's the most common example of classical conditioning?
Pavlov's Dogs (instinctual response)
105
What are the 3 Stimulus types?
1. Neutral
2. Conditional
3. **Un**conditioned
106
What are the 2 Response types?
1. Conditioned Response
2. **Un**conditioned Response
107
* List the 4 Conditioning Processes
1. Acquisition
2. Extinction
3. Spontaneous recovery
4. Generalization
108
* Neutral stimulus
* In Pavlov's study, what was the neutral stimulus?
* is a stimulus that:
* does ***not*** elicit a response *in the absence of learning*
ex: ***THE BELL*** that was used in Pavlov's study
109
* Unconditioned stimulus
* In Pavlov's Study, what was the unconditioned stimulus?
* A stimulus that ***naturally elicits a response***
ex: ***SIGHT/SMELL OF STEAK*** caused dogs to salivate
110
* Conditioned stimulus
* In Pavlov's Study, what was his conditioned stimulus?
* If a neutral stimulus is repeated paired with some stimulus that naturally elicits a response (an "unconditioned stimulus")
ex: pavlov linked the ***BELL*** with the ***SIGHT/SMELL of steak*** to create a conditioned stimulus
111
With conditioning, what has to happen for a stimulus to be "acquired?"
* Associations b/t the **neutral** and **conditioned** stimuli makes it so ***the once-neutral stimuli is now a conditioned stimulus***
112
With conditioning, what leads to extinction?
* Association extinguished by ***repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimuli*** (bell) ***WITHOUT the unconditioned stimuli*** (steak)
113
What in conditioning is the phenomenon of Spontaneous Recovery?
* Subject shows a conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus, **_even though the conditioned stimulus has been extinguished_**
* ex: Pavlov's dogs react to bell sound ***years after the study*** (and extinction of the stimulus)
114
In conditioning, what is "generalization?"
* When individuals generalize a conditioned response to stimuli that ***are similar to, but not identical*** to the conditioned stimulus itself
115
In conditioning, what is "discrimination?"
* Subjects learn to respond to ***ONLY the specific, conditioned stimulus itself***, *while ignoring other very similar stimuli*
* **ex: Pavlov's dog's dont respond to higher-pitched bells
116
Define Operant Conditioning
learning to associate a behavior with a CONSEQUENCE
117
Name the 2 Operant Processes
1. Shaping
2. Extinction
118
Name the 4 types of operant conditioning Reinforcement
1. Positive
2. Negative
3. Primary
4. Conditioned
119
Operant conditioning: shaping
* involves reinforcing ***success*** ***approximations*** for some target behavior
* ex: have a dog do something **similar to sitting** until you have it regularly **sitting on command**
120
Operant conditioning: Extinction
occurs when a behavior results in NO consequences
121
Operant conditioning: positive reinforcement
presenting something that results in reinforcement
122
What is "reinforcement" in operant conditioning?
defined as anything that makes a behavior more like to occur in the future
123
Operant conditioning: negative reinforcement
* Involves REMOVING something to reinforce a behavior
* Ex: Car beeps at you until you buckle your seatbelt
* Remove annoying beeping sound to reinforce behavior of buckling up
124
What is "punishment" in operant conditioning?
anything that makes a behavior ***less likely*** to occur
125
* Operant conditioning: positive punishment
* Describe
* Give an example
* Involves presenting/ doing something/"adding something" to result in punishment
* make the behavior ***less likely***
* ex: Spanking
126
* Operant conditioning: negative punishment
* Describe
* Give an example
* ***Removing*** something to make behavior ***less likely*** to occur in future
* ex: no phone, video games, grounding, etc
127
* Operant conditioning:
* a ___ reinforcer has **no** intrinsic value *in and of itself*
* *...*but **gains** it because it has **been associated with** a ___ \_\_\_
* Give an example of this
"Conditioned Reinforcer"
## Footnote
* associated with a "Primary reinforcer"
* ex: Green paper with presidents is "worthless," but since in the past it has been paired with food, clothes, shelter, etc.
***it takes on reinforcing value _by association_***
128
What are the 4 Reinforcement **Schedules**?
1. Fixed-Ratio
2. Variable-Ratio
3. Fixed-Interval
4. Variable-Interval
129
What does punishment do to behavioral response? (3)
_Punishment either:_
## Footnote
1. **Weakens** the response
2. **Decreases** its frequency, or
3. **Stops it** altogether
130
* DONT think of "punishment" in terms of "good" or "bad"
* Focus on **what** instead?
* Focus on what punishments DO:
## Footnote
***Discourage the behavior***
131
What does reinforcement do to behavior? (3)
1. **Encourages** it
2. **Strengthens** it, or
3. **Increases** its frequency
132
What are the 2 reactions to negative reinforcement?
1. **_Escape learning:_**
* subj. adopts a behavior to reduce or end an unpleasant stimulus
2. **_Avoidance stimulus:_**
* subj. adopts a behavior to AVOID an unpleasant stimulus in the future
133
* What are the 2 ways one can learn to associate two events?
1. **_Automatic:_**
* unconscious
* stimulus driven
2. **_Rule-Based Processing:_**
* CONSCIOUS
* Intentional
134
* What 2 things "drive" Rule-based processing
* (when associating two events)
* What does it LIMIT?
* Why are humans "weird" when it comes to this?
* Driven by both:
1. The event (stimulus) experienced
2. Language, cognition, or formal reasoning
Limits the **_applicability of Associative Learning!_**
* Humans are weird because we learn to "expect" or "anticipate" an unconditioned stimulus
* ...and will apply external reasoning in order to alter (or avoid) the conditioning process
135
Latent Learning. define & give an example
* Learning that exists **WITHOUT** the presentation of a reward,
* ...but is **spontaneously demonstrated** once a reward ***IS*** presented
* Basically, you ***CAN*** still learn *without any kind of conditioning*
* mice in a maze learn to negotiate maze w/o any reinforcement
* BUT when food reward is offered they negotiate better
136
* What are the four LIMITS on Associative Learning?
1. Latent learning
2. Biological predispositions
3. Rules-based processing
4. Instinctive drift
137
Wrt associative learning, what are "biological predispositions?"
* Every subject (animal or human) has biological instincts that **predispose them** toward adaptive responses
* **DECREASING** the likelihood that conditioned responses ***contrary to those predispositions*** endure
138
* Describe "Instinctive Drift"
* What is it a limit on?
* The tendency of a subject of operant conditioning to revert from a conditioned response to an INSTINCTUAL response
* often one that is **very similar to the conditioned response**
****Is a limit on the applicability of associative learning
139
Observational learning
* Learning that results from observation of the behavior of others
140
Define "Social-cognitive theory"
* a broad psychological perspective that attempts to explain
* behavior
* learning, and
* other phenomena
It INCLUDES **observational learning** as one of its tenants
141
What are the 4 tenants of social-cognitive theory?
1. Observational learning
2. Self-efficacy
3. Situational influences
4. Cognitive processes
142
Bobo doll experiment. What were the results?
* Kids exposed to aggressive model (adult that beat up bobo doll) were more likely to act aggressively
* When **_both_** genders were exposed to aggressive models, ***boys more aggressive than girls***
143
In observational learning, what is "modeling?"
the process of learning a behavior by watching others and mimicking their behavior
144
Observing others may result in what wrt "modeling?" (3)
1. We might learn to mimick what they do
2. We might learn to NOT mimick their behavior
3. It might motivate us to engage ***entirely unrelated behaviors***
* Ex:
* Dad sees someone fall and die mtn climbing
* decides mtn climbing isnt for him anymore and picks up crocheting
145
* What are "mirror neurons?"
* Give an example of when they are used
* are a class of neuron that are active when we watch someone else perform a behavior and again when we do the behavior OURSELVES
* ex: see someone's facial expression of emotion and later we make that same face ourselves
146
What GPS principle does this represent?
figure ground (pragnanz)
The eye differentiates an object from its surrounding area. A form, silhouette, or shape is perceived as the FIGURE, while the surrounding area is perceived as the GROUND
147
What GPS principle does this represent?
focal points:
a point of interest, something emphasized or different will catch and hold the viewers attention
148
What GPS principle does this represent?
closure:
in perception, there is the tendency to complete unfinished or partially obscured objects
149
What GPS principle does this represent?
figure ground (pragnanz):
The eye differentiates an object from its surrounding area. A form, silhouette, or shape is perceived as the FIGURE, while the surrounding area is perceived as the GROUND
150
What GPS principle does this represent?
proximity:
the closer objects are to each other, the more likely they are to be perceived as a group
151
What GPS principle does this represent?
closure:
in perception there is the tendency to complete unfinished or partially obscured objects
152
What GPS principle does this represent?
figure ground (pragnanz):
The eye differentiates an object from its surrounding area. A form, silhouette, or shape is perceived as the FIGURE, while the surrounding area is perceived as the GROUND
153
What GPS principle does this represent?
similarity:
when objects look similar to one another. People often perceive them as a group or pattern
154
Name the Ten most frequently cited GP's (Gestalt Principles)
1. Closure
2. Continuation
3. Common Fate
4. Proximity
5. Similarity
6. Continuity
7. Good Gestalt
8. Symmetry
9. Past Experience
10. Convexity
155
The olfactory is an ____ pathway of the \_\_\_division of the PNS
* afferent
* somatic
156
* **Perception** and **decision making** would occur in a variety of \_\_\_\_\_s in the CNS/PNS?
* interneurons
* CNS
157
* Motor neurons are ____ nerve fibers of the ___ division of the CNS/PNS?
* efferent
* somatic
* Peripheral NS
158
* Any memory lasting more than\_\_\_\_\_ has most likely encoded into **long term** memory
20-30 sec
159
* What is the transmission pathway of an **auditory impulse**, in order, from the **hair cells** to the **auditory** **cortex**?
1. Hair cells of the inner ear
2. Vesibulocochlear nerve
3. Brain stem
4. Medial geniculate nucleus (MGN)
* *part of the thalamus*
5. Auditory cortex
* *part of the temporal lobe*
160
Smell, aka "\_\_\_"
olfaction
161
* Olfactory cells are called \_\_\_\_\_\_s because they are triggered by ___ \_\_\_s that directly bind specific gaseous/vaporized airborne \_\_\_\_\_s
* chemoreceptors
* membrane receptors
* chemicals
162
* What are "Phermones?"
* What are they more established/common in?
* Specialized odor receptors released by one individual
* ***elicit behavior*** in another individual ***upon olfaction*** (smell)
_More established/common **in animals** than in humans_
163
Taste: \_\_\_\_\_s on the tongue bind ___ \_\_\_s, such as \_\_\_
* chemoteceptors
* dissolved chemicals
* such as salt
164
What is the pathway for Taste? (3)
1. Taste buds
2. Brain stem
3. Taste center
* in the thalamus
165
* What is somatosensation?
* What does it include (7)?
* basically, it's "touch," but it includes:
1. touch
2. texture
3. pain
4. pressure
5. temperature
6. stretching
7. vibration
166
The somatosensory cortex is in the ___ lobe
parietal
167
the olfactory bulb is located in the \_\_\_
forebrain
168
Kinesthetic sense
* Body position and the mvmt of body parts **_relative to one another_**
169
* Vestibular Sense
* Describe
* What does it use for detection?
**_Balance and orientation_**
## Footnote
* by responding to changes in linear and rotational acceleration
* ***detected by HAIR CELLS*** in the vestibule and the semicircular canals
170
Remember that **sensation** and **perception** are...
***NOT EQUAL!!***
171
Think of "sensation" as...
* a **physiological** process
* sensory receptors and APs
172
Think of "perception" as...
* a **PSYCHOlogical** process
* "Making sense" of the signal
* Influenced by: experience, bias, etc.
173
Bottom-Up processing
* involves taking **individual** elements and putting them **together** to make a **whole**
174
Top-Down processing
## Footnote
* Involves ______ factors that **influence** the way in which components are \_\_\_\_\_\_ed
* Higher level \_\_\_\_\_\_\_s "LET" you _____ something
* Involves **cognitive factors** that influence the way in which components are **processed**
* *higher level **expectations***"LET**"** you **perceive** something
175
The concept of "**schemas**" is most closely related to which type of processing, bottom-up or top-down?
top-down
176
What does "Perceptual Organization" refer to?
* Our ability to use what info we ***DO*** have about an incomplete stimulus, such as:
* depth
* form
* motion
* constancy
* ...to "fill in the blanks," ***and thereby perceive a whole, continuous picture***
177
* Based on **Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting**, rank the following time intervals, measured from the first day a memory was encoded, in order of **increasing** percentage of memory loss:
1. Day 1-2
2. Days 3-5
3. Days 12-20
4. Days 2-10
**12-20**
## Footnote
* The point here is that the **closer** to the point at which rehearsal **ends...**
****_the **more** information is **lost** **more quickly**_
*After the first few days, there is a **very gradual decay** in the information that is retained*
178
**DISCRIMINATION**
* For the two examples that follow, identify the specific component of the example that illustrates **each** of following (if they apply):
* a) neutral, conditioned, or unconditioned stimulus
* b) conditioned or unconditioned response
* c) acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, or discrimination.
**_Example 1_**
* A physically abused child reflexively raises his hand to cover his face when his father is about to strike him
* His father smokes heavily and the child **knows** his father is nearby when he **smells** cigarette smoke
* At first, the child does not like the smell of cigarette smoke, but mostly ignores it
* After some time, however, the child begins to **flinch** **at the** **mere smell** of cigarette smoke
* The child moves away from home and lives with roommates who also smoke
* Eventually he **loses his fear** of cigarette smoke
* Many years later, the child **revisits** his childhood home, long after his father has passed away
* Upon entering the house he **smells** the strong odor of stale cigarette smoke
* To his surprise, it makes him **cringe**
**_Example 2_**
* An elderly man’s wife begins a new habit of baking bread weekly
* The man **loves** his wife’s homemade bread and **the smell** of it cooking makes him salivate
* His wife uses a wind-up oven timer to tell her when the bread is ready to remove from the oven
* A few weeks later, his wife is using the **same** timer to keep track of her exercise on the **treadmill**
* At the end of her exercise routine the man often tells his wife that he is hungry and asks for some homemade bread
* A short-time later, the man realizes that the sound of his alarm clock **also** makes him salivate and crave homemade bread
* However, because his wife **never** makes homemade bread in the mornings, this reaction eventually **fades**--
* ****until once again he **only** salivates to the sound of the oven timer
**_Example 1_**
* The abuse received from the father serves as an **unconditioned stimulus** which cause flinching behavior (unconditioned response)
* The smell of smoke is at first a **neutral stimulus**, but after repeated pairings with the abuse, the child **acquires an association** between the smell of smoke and the abuse
* At this point, the smell becomes a **conditioned stimulus** which elicits the **conditioned response** of flinching
* Once the child moves in with roommates who smoke, the fear response to smoke is **extinguished** because the smoke is **no longer paired** with the abusive father
* However, the fear response **spontaneously recovers** when the individual revisits his childhood home
**_Example 2_**
* The smell of homemade bread serves as the **unconditioned stimulus** which elicits salivation/hunger (**unconditioned response)**
* The timer is a **neutral stimulus** that is repeatedly paired with the smell of the bread, and eventually, it takes on the role of a **conditioned stimulus** which elicits the **conditioned response** of salivation/hunger
* Eventually, the man’s conditioned response **generalizes** to like stimuli (i.e. the alarm clock), but over time, the man shows **discrimination** in his response **ONLY** to the _oven_ timer
179
Sensing the Environment
* Define "**Sensation**" (3 steps, or ***"-ion"*** s)
* Also define "**Threshold**"
**_Sensation_** is the...
* **Detection** of environmental stimuli
* by *sensory receptors*
* **Conversion** *of* that stimuli
* ...to an *electrical impulse*
* **Transmission** of that impulse
* *to the Central Nervous System* (**CNS**)
**_Threshold_**
* The **MINIMUM** _magnitude_ of a stimulus,
OR
* The minimum **DIFFERENCE IN** _magnitude_ between **two** stimuli
* ...that can be **perceived** by the **CNS***
180
Sensing the Environment
* Sensation
* Threshold
Provide a conceptual definition for:
1. **Absolute** threshold
2. Threshold of **conscious perception/detection**
3. **Difference** threshold
* a.k.a., "***Just-Noticeable-Difference," JND***
* Several different thresholds are of import when considering how sensory systems detect information from our external worlds
_The **Absolute** threshold_
* Communicates information about **how sensitive** a given sensory system is
* It is usually defined as the **minimum** amount of stimulation that can be detected **about 50% of the time**
* Put another way, the absolute threshold tells you **how** bright (or dim ) a light must be or **how** loud a sound must be **in order to be detected half of the time**
Any stimulus that falls **below** this minimum value would **fail** to cross a "**Threshold for conscious detection"**
* It **might** be possible that stimuli of which we are **not** consciously aware influence us in **some** way
* e.g. subliminal messages in advertising
* However, _consistent_ empirical support of this idea is _lacking_
_**Difference** thresholds, a.k.a., **"Just-Noticeable-Difference," JND**_
* Speak to our ability to **discriminate** among sensory stimuli *of varying intensities*
* In other words, the JND is determined by **how much** difference must exist **between two stimuli** in order to determine that one is* ***MORE** (or **LESS**) intense than the other*
181
Vision
* The Eye
Describe **Cones & Rods**
* How do they relate to e/o when it comes to ***sensitivity**?*
* How are they different wrt **resolution** of detail?
* What **colors** can/do they emit?
* How many **pigments** do they have?
**Relative # of cones/rods=?**
**_CONES:_**
* **Less** sensitive than rods
* Perceive:
* Color
* **Fine** resolution of detail
* Contain **3 PIGMENTS**
* **Each** of which show **maximum** light absorption at a **different** **λ**
* The three “max absorption” λ's are roughly equivalent to:
* **Blue**, **Green** and **Red**
***_NOTE_: Relative # of cones = X***
**_RODS:_**
* **Highly** sensitive *("Rod is such a wuss!")*
* Perceive black & white only
* Poor resolution of detail
* Contain only **ONE** pigment (rhodopsin)
***_NOTE_: Relative # of rods = 20X***
182
Vision
* **Optics**
1. The lens of the human eye is a ______ lens and therefore always produces a _____ image
2. Light rays are bent primarily by the \_\_\_\_, and only adjusted by the \_\_\_\_\_
3. Lasik surgery reshapes the \_\_\_\_\_, NOT the \_\_\_\_
4. A ___ \_\_\_ exists for each eye where the _____ \_\_\_\_\_ passes through the retina
1. The lens of the human eye is a **converging** lens and therefore always produces a **PRI** image
2. Light rays are bent primarily by the **cornea**, and only adjusted by the **lens**
3. Lasik surgery reshapes the **cornea**, NOT the **lens**
4. A **blind** **spot** exists for each eye where the **optic nerve** passes through the retina
183
Vision
* Optics
* A student makes the proclamation “The **cells of the retina** appear to be arranged **upside down!**”
**Explain** this observation and why it helps account for the existence of a **blind spot** (aka the **"optical \_\_\_\_"**)
The retina is arranged such that the photoreceptors face **away** from the light
* ...and then **make connections** with several layers of cells that are **closer** to the source of the incoming light
* So, in a way, the retina is **indeed** arranged*
***“upside down”***
Because the retinal ganglion cells are actually on the **outside** layer of the retina that is **closest** to the source of incoming light
* ...their axons actually have to project **back** **through** the retina
* ...in order to **form the optic nerve** to travel to the brain
The place at which **all** of the axons of the retinal ganglion cells project through the **rear** of the eye, therefore, have **NO** photoreceptors
*This area is known as the **optic disc** or the "**blind spot"***
184
Vision
* Optics
Describe the factors that determine when a person is **near**- or **far**-sighted
* **Where** is the image formed in both cases?
* What **type** **of lens** is needed to correct each condition?
In *normally-sighted* individuals, images coming into the eye are focused **directly ON** the retina
**Nearsightedness (myopia)**
* is generally associated with either an **elongation** of the eye or severe **curvature** **of the cornea** such that the image tends to focus **too early**
* This results in people having more difficulty seeing things ***at a distance***
**Farsightedness (hyperopioa)**
* is associated with an eye that is **too short** or a **cornea that doesn’t curve enough**
* In this case, people have more difficulty seeing things that are relatively **close**
*In **_both_** cases, the problems with eyeshape and/or curvature of the cornea can be corrected with eyeglasses, contact lenses, and/or surgery*
185
What is the **transmission pathway** of an **OLFACTORY IMPULSE**
* In order, from the olfactory **epithelium** to higher-order **brain** centers?
* HINT: **SN**eering **N**ed **B**ugs **B**rian*
1. Olfactory **SENSORY NEURONS**
* located in olfactory epithelium of the upper nasal cavity
2. Olfactory **NERVE**
* cranial nerve 1
3. Olfactory **BULB**
* forebrain
4. Higher-order **BRAIN** centers
* varies:
* amygdala
* hippocampus
* orbitofrontal cortex, etc.
186
Sensation
* Threshold
Define "**Absolute** Threshold"
* What **kind** of information about a sensory system does it communicate?
* *Numerically*, **how often** should you be able to detect a stimuli for it to reach "**Absolute** Threshold?"
**_Absolute threshold_**
*Communicates information about **how sensitive** a given sensory system is*
_Definition:_
is the **minimum** amount of stimulation that can be detected ***about 50% of the time***
* Put another way, the absolute threshold tells you **how** bright (or dim ) a light **must be** or **how** loud a sound **must be**
* ....in order to be detected **HALF OF THE TIME***
187
Sensation
* Threshold
Describe:
**"Threshold for Conscious Detection/Perception"**
***_Threshold for conscious detection_***
* Any stimulus that falls **BELOW** the minimum value (aka "Absolute Threshold") would **FAIL** to cross the _Threshold of conscious detection/perception_
**THINK****:** *Subliminal Messages*
* *It **might** be possible that stimuli of which we are **not** consciously aware are able to **influence** us in **some** way*
* *e.g. subliminal messages in advertising*
* *"OBEY MY DOG!"*
However, consistent empirical support
of this idea is **lacking**
188
*Which hypothesis is **LEAST** relevant to the role of amyloid precursor protein (APP) in the formation of β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques?*
## Footnote
**A**
* A mutation in the enzyme responsible for processing APP causes an **increased** concentration of Aβ
**B**
* A defect in the blood brain barrier causes **decreased** transport of APP from the cerebrospinal fluid to the blood plasma
**C**
* A defect in the blood brain barrier causes **increased** transport of APP from the blood plasma to the cerebrospinal fluid
**D**
* A defect in the blood brain barrier causes **increased** transport of APP from the cerebrospinal fluid to the blood plasma
**D**
## Footnote
***_EXCESS A.P.P IN CNS ⇒ β- Amyloid plaque buildup_***
* This is a **LEAST** relevant question, so any answer that is relevant is **in**correct
The common thread between theories regarding the formation of β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques is an **accumulation** of **amyloid precursor protein (APP)**
* This is analogous to the basic science concept of precipitate formation in solution chemistry, in that:
* when there is enough **UN**processed APP (or solute) it will **aggregate**, or precipitate, as a β-amyloid (Aβ) plaque
* Because of this, **any** answer that can at least **partially** explain a **higher than normal concentration of APP in the CNS** is relevant (and therefore incorrect)
* Answer A is incorrect, a mutation in the enzyme responsible for processing APP **could** result in increased concentrations of APP and thus the formation of β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques, especially if β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques can cross the blood brain barrier
* Answers B and C are both incorrect, any defect in the blood brain barrier causing an **increased** concentration of APP/Aβ **would** be relevant to the formation of β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques
* Answer B’s defect results in **decreased** _CLEARANCE_ of APP/Aβ **from** the CNS to the blood plasma
* Answer C’s defect results in an **increased** INTAKE of APP/Aβ **into** the CNS
_Answer D is correct_
A hypothesis suggesting **increased** transport of APP *from the _cerebrospinal fluid_ to the _blood plasma_* would indicate a **higher** clearance from the central nervous system
* and ∴ a **lower** overall APP concentration in the brain
189
After eating a pineapple, a patient contracted a bacterial infection. The patient now has an extreme dislike for the taste of pineapple.
**Which process has occurred?**
**A**
* Taste sensation has been observationally conditioned
**B**
* Taste aversion has been classically conditioned
**C**
* Taste response has been operantly conditioned
**D**
* Nausea aversion has been instrumentally conditioned
**B**
## Footnote
**Some** conditioning has occurred in the scenario in the stem, but it is **unlikely** that observational or instrumental conditioning has occurred eliminating Answers A and D
* To differentiate between Answers B and C we need to decide whether **classical** or **operant** conditioning has occurred
The association between **vomiting** and **pineapple** is an example of **CLASSICAL CONDITIONING** (Natural response), and thus Answer **B** is the best answer
190
**EPISODIC** memory is an example of ____ memory
**EXPLICIT**
* What were you doing when the Trade Towers collapsed?
* (Requires **conscious** recall)
191
Describe **THE CENTRAL EXECUTIVE**
* What **type** of memory is it a part of?
* What 2 things make it up?
* What are its **roles** (2)?
* When is an example of a time you'd be using the Central Executive?
Part of the **WORKING** memory!!!
The **Central Executive** portion of **working** memory is comprised of both the:
1. **Phonological Loop**, and
2. **Visuospatial Sketchpad**
_The **ROLE** of the Central Executive is to:_
1. **Suppress** _useless_ information
2. **Direct attention** to _useful_ information
*You'd be using the Central Executive to process visual & audio information while playing video games*
192
What is a "**FLASHBULB** Memory?"
* What do they involve?
* Give a personal example of a flashbulb memory **YOU** have
**_Flashbulb memories_**
* Are memories that **correspond to an emotional event**
* Involve **vivid recall** of the **contextual details** (where you were, what you were doing, etc.) **associated** with the memory
_Ex_:
* I remember 9/11 was on a **TUESDAY**, because the night before Ed Mccaffrey broke his leg on MNF
* I was going to talk about that with the kids on the bus, but then I heard about the Towers.
193
The Ear
* What does the **EXTERNAL AUDITORY CANAL** do?
Funnels sound waves **INTO** the ear, and
causes the _tympanic membrane_ to **VIBRATE**
194
The Ear
* What are the names of the **3** **OSSICLES?**
* HINT: "-us" or "-es"*
* Which of these 3 presses into the **oval window** of the **cochlea?**
What **CAUSES** the ossicles to **MOVE?**
**_THE 3 OSSICLES:_**
1. Malle**us**
2. Inc**us**
3. Stap**es**
* *The stapes actually **presses into the oval window** of the **cochlea***
_Move because of the **VIBRATION**_
_of the**TYMPANIC MEMBRANE**_
*(which is vibrating because of sound waves that came through the*
*_external auditory canal_)*
195
The Ear
_What happens in the **COCHLEA** as a result of:_
* **MOVEMENT** of the **3** **OSSICLES?**
* What happens as a result of ***THIS?***
**IHC's distend⇒ converted into neural impulses**
**⇒off to the brain**
**INNER HAIR CELLS** along the basilar membrane of
the fluid-filled cochlea are **DISTENDED** *(see pic)*
*"Distended"=swollen due to pressure from inside; bloated*
As a result, this is **CONVERTED** into **NEURAL IMPULSES**
that **TRAVEL TO THE BRAIN** for processing
196
The Ear
* What do **INNER** Hair Cells (IHC's) and **OUTER** Hair Cells (OHC's) do?
_INNER HAIR CELLS **(IHC's)**_
**CONVERT** mechanical **DISPLACEMENT**
*(as a function of sound waves)*
into **NEURAL IMPULSES** (⇒ off to the brain)
_OUTER HAIR CELLS **(OHC's)**_
are involved in **_AMPLIFYING_ SOUND WAVES**
197
The Ear
* **STEREOCILIA**
* Are found *WHERE?*
* How do they differ from **"NORMAL"** cilia?
* Why is this difference important?
**STEREOCILIA**
* *found in the **Organ of Corti***
_Differ from **other** cilia because:_
They do **NOT** move like the cilia that sweep debris from the respiratory tract
_Rather, they are moved by:_
**MOVEMENT IN THE _FLUID_ THAT SURROUNDS THEM**
_These movements are important for:_
* **Communicating sensory information** (either auditory or vestibular) **to the** **CNS**
198
The Ear
**ORGAN OF CORTI**
* Is know as the "\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of the body"
* What does this organ contain?
Organ of Corti=
**MICROPHONE** of the Body
Contain the **hair cells** (IHC's & OHC's)
that **give rise to nerve signals**
in **response** to sound vibrations
