Psych-Soc Flashcards
Franz Gall
theory that behavior, intellect and personality linked to brain anatomy.
Created doctrine of phrenology.
If particular trait well developed, then that part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand–bulge
thus measure the psych attributes by measuring skull.
created research on brain functions
Pierre Flourens
first person to study the functions of the major sections of the brain. Did this by extirpation (ablation)- brain parts removed and behavior observed. Specific brain parts had special functions
William James
father of American psych. studied how mind adapts to environment. Functionalism funder- how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments
John Dewey
also involved with functionalism. wrote article criticizing reflex arc (reacting to stimulus in diff parts). Focus on studying organisms as a whole and how it adapts to environment
Paul Broca
examining behavioral deficits of people with brain damage. Link specific functional impairments with specific brain legions. Studied man who could not speak due to lesion in L. Brain. Broca’s area
Herman von Helmholtz
First to measure speed of a nerve impulse. Related measured speed of such impulse to reaction time- link with behavior and nervous system. Credited with transition of psych out of philosophy and into natural science
Charles Sherrington
existence of synapses– thought electrical but rlly chemical (was wrong)`
Central Nervous system
brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
cranial and spinal nerves and sensors
afferent neurons
sensory neurons- bring signals from a sensor (sensory info) to the CNS (spinal cord or brain)
efferent neurons
motor neurons- bring signals from the central nervous system to an effector (muscles and glands)
interneurons
found between other neurons and numerous- in CNS and reflexive behavior
pathway of stepping on a nail
sensory neurons to interneurons, relay pain impulses up to the brain. instead of waiting for brain to respond, interneurons in spinal cord send signals to leg muscles to reflexively move- reflex arc
peripheral system includes ___ pairs of nerves from spinal cord and __ pairs of nerves from the brain
31 (spinal nerves) , 12 (cranial nerves)
How is peripheral nervous system split?
somatic NS and autonomic NS (ANS)
somatic nervous system
consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed through the skin, joints and muscles - voluntary actions
ANS
regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion and glandular secretions (involuntary muscles) and body temperature
ANS subdivisions
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system: antagonists of one another (opposites)
sympathetic nervous system
accelerate heart beat, inhibit digestion, blood to muscles of locomotion, increase gluc in blood, relax bronchi, dilate eyes, release epi in blood
activated by stress- school work to emergencies’
rage and fear- fight or flight
parasympathetic nervous system
conserve energy! resting, sleeping states, reduces heart rate, constrict the bronchi. manage digestion by increasing peristalsis and exocrine secretions, constricts pupil, stimulates flow of saliva, bile release, contracts bladder
what NT is response for parasympathetic nervous system?
acetylcholine
meniges
brain covering - with a 3 layer sheet of connective tissue
meniges outer layer
dura mater- to skull
meninges middle layer
fibrous, web like structure- arachnid mater
meniges inner layer
pia mater- connected to the brain
meninges purpose
help protect brain by anchoring it to the skull absorbs CBF (which cushions and nourishes brain)
human brain divison
hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
which brain division were developed early?
hindbrain and midbrain- forms brainstem- basic functions (more complex as you go up)
cerebral cortex
outer covering of the cerebral hemisphere- language processing to problem solving, impulse to long term planning- complex perceptual and cognitive and behavioral processes
Forebrain includes
cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus. Greatest influence on human behavior
basal ganglia
movement
limbic system
emotion and memory
thalamus
sensory relay station- except smell
hypothalamus
hunger and thirst, emotion (aggression, sexual, high arousal)
homeostatic functions- endocrine and ANS
metabolism, temp, water balance
key in high stress
midbrain includes
inferior and superior colliculi
inferior and superior colliculi
sensorimotor reflexes- receives info. Involuntary reflex triggered by visual/auditory stimuli
superior colliculi- visual sensory received
inferior colliculi- sensory info from auditory received
Hindbrain includes
cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular formation, pons
cerebellum
refined motor movements- posture and balance and coordination- damage = clumsy, slurred speech and loss of balance
medulla oblongata
heart rate, vital reflex (vomitting, coughing), breathing, digestion- lower brain structure
reticular formation
arousal and alertness
pons
communication within the brain, breathing- above medulla connects with with the cortex)
Hindbrain location
where the brain meets the spinal cord
Hindbrain general function
controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion and arousal (wake and sleep)
neuropsychology
study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain- clinical or research, diagnostic tool
Methods for studying brain regions and behaviors
brain legions in animals through removing or electrodes with heat, cold or electricity
can electrically stimulate brain and record brain activity - causes neurons to fire- creation cortical maps and measuring behavior
record individual neurons by ultraseneitive micro electrodes in brain cells and recording electrical activity (
broad electrical activity done with an EEG
EEG stands for
electroencephalogram - electrodes on scalp
brain mapping procedure
regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)- detects broad patterns of neuronal activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain (increases with cog functions)- inhale radioactive gas
CT
CAT SCAN- X-rays of tissues
PET
radioactive sugar uptake with tissues
MRI
hydrogen atoms and magnetic field
fMRI
measures blood flow
structures surrounding brain from most deep to most superficial
meniges, bone, periosteum, skin
lateral hypothalmus
hunger center- trigger eating or drinking
ventromedial hypothalmus
satiety center- stop eating
anterior hypothal
controls sexual behavior
posterior pit
site of release of antidiretuic hormones (ADH— vasopressin and oxytocin)
pineal gland
melatonin release- regulate circadian rhythms -signl from retina from sunlight
extrapyrmida system in basal ganglia
gathers info about body position
Parkinson disease= decrease in basal ganglia
limbic system includes
septal nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, anteriori cingulate cortex
septal nuclei
pleasure center (and addictive behavior)
amgydala
defensive and aggression - fear and rage
hippocampus
learning and memory processes- consolidate info to form long term memories and redistribute memories in cerebral cortex
patient HM!
how does hippocampus communicate with other portions of limbic system?
fornix- long projection
anterograde amnesia
loss of any new information memory, but remember everything before accident
opposite is retrograde amnesia - cant remember old memories
anterior cingulate cortex
regulation of impulse control and decision making, emotion and motivation
F-POT
Frontal, Parietal, Occiptal and temporal
cerebral cortex
outer surface of the brain- neocortex-gyre and sucli bumps- just evolved
halves- cerebral hemispheres and 4 lobes
frontal lobe
prefrontal cortex and the motor cortex
prefrontal cortex
manages executive functioning by supervising brain operations. For ex. to regulate attention and alertness, PFC communicates with reticular formation in the brainstem- wake up or relax
perception, memory, emotional, impulse,
Broca’s area
association area
intergrates input from diverse regions of the brain- to reach a difficult decision and require many inputs- PFC
partial lobe
near the rear of the frontal lobe– spatial processing and manipulation, manipulate objects in space, organizational skills
projection areas
perform rudimentary perceptional and motor tasks
somatosensory cortex
in the parietal lobe- in the post central gyrus- involved with somatosensory information process
occipital lobe
rear of brain- continues the visual cortex- striate cortex.
visual information, learning and motor control
“burrowed”
temporal lobe
audiotory cortex- with sounds and speech and music info
memory processing, emotion and language
hippocampus located here
Wernickes area
in temporal lobe- language receptions and comprehension
when cerebral hemispheres communicate with one another on diff sides we call it:
contralaterally
when cerebral hemispheres communicate with one another on the same side we call it:
ipsilaterally
dominant hemisphere:
heavily stimulated during language perception and production usually the left
analytical in function, esp with managing details
language screened , logic, math skills
language producyion
Broca’s area - in dom hemis
language comphrenesion
Wernickes area- in dom hemis
non dominant hemisphere
usually the right
intuition, creativity, music cognition, spatial processing
emotional tone based on audio and visual cues
interprets language
NT
a chemical used by neurons to send signals to other neurons
agonist
drug that mimics NT
antagonist
drugs that block the action of NT
What is Acetylcholine In CNS and PNS
CNS(attention and arousal) and PNS(transmit nerve impulse to muscles)
EPI, NOR and DOP are called
Catecholamines, monoamines and biogenic amines
Role of EPI, NOR and Dop
experience of emotions
Epi and NOR
adrenaline and noradrenaline (local) control alertness and awakeness. Primary NT of the sympathetic NS- promote fight or flight
adrenaline is secreted from
adrenal medulla to act with hormones- correlate with depression, mania, etc
Dop
movement and posture smooth and maintained
found In basal ganglia
dop imbalance
schizo – to much and oversenstizie and lay roles in delusions and hallucinations
Parkinsons
loss of dop neurons in basal ganglia
resting tremors and jerky movements and bad posture
Ser
monoamine or biogenic amine, not catecholamines
regulate mood, eating, sleeping, dreaming
depression and mania
Gaba
Gamma aminobutyric - inhibitory post synaptic potentials
stabilize neuronal activity
hyperpolizarize the postsyn membrane
Glycine
inhibitory NT by increasing chloride influx- hypoerpolizres neuron
glutamate
excitatory NT
peptide NT
neuromodulators or neuropeptides-chain of events
slow and longer effects than NT
endorphins
natural painkillers (and enkephalins) have similar actions to morphines and other opiods
endocrine system
internal communication network in the body with chemical messengers (hormones)
hypothalamus links:
endo and nervous system tg- régulate H function of the pit gland
pit gland
master gland
located at base of brain
anterior and psoterior
anterior pit gland
master- releases H that regulate activities of the endo glands
controlled by hypoth
adrenal gland
on top of kidneys- adrenal medulla na adrenal cortex
adrenal medulla
release EPI and NOR as sympath response
adrenal cortex
produce corticosteroids, including cortisol
tester one and estrogen produced - sexual funcitoning
gonads
sex glands of the body- ovaries and tests
increase sex H (estrogen and test)
increase libido and contribute to mating behavior and sexual function
innate behavior
genetically programmed as a result of evolution and regardless of environment it is seen
learned behavior
based one experience and enviroment
adaptive value
trait or behavior positively benefits species by influencing evol fitness-lead to adaption and natural selection
nature vs. nurutre
nature- inherited
nurture- influence of environment
family studies
family of genetic individuals, unrelated indivudals (general pop) is controlled group– answers if genetic individuals and Dif than unrelated indivu
twin study
monozytoci (MZ, identical) . control group is dizygotic (fraternal twins)
shared envions and genetic and see differences
adoption study
adaptive family and control group is biological family
understand environ and genetics on behaivior
neurlation
when a furrow is produced from ectoderm overlying the notochord and consists of neural groove and 2 neuronal folds. As the neural fold grows, tej cells at their leading edge and called neural crest cells. When neural folds fuse, this creates the neuronal tube, which will form CNS
rooting
turns head toward direction of any object touching the cheek
moro
in response to sudden head movement, arms extended and slowly retract, baby cries
babinksi
extension of big toe and fanning of other toes in response to brushing the sole of the foot
grasping
holding onto any object placed in hand
gross motor developemnt
holding onto any object from head to doe, and from the core to the periphery.
sensation
aligns with transduction – physical, electromagnetic , auditory and other information from our internal and external environment and converting this information into electrical signals in the nervous system- receptors in the PNS, which forward It to the CNS in the form of AP and NT. Raw signal, unfiltered and unprocessed until it enters CNS
Perception
refers to the processing this information within the CNS to make sene of the information’s significance- external sensory stimulus and internal brain and spinal cord involved. makes sense of the world.
sensory receptos
neurons that respond to stimuli by triggering electrical signals that carry information to the CNS. outside body= distal stimuli- which produce photons, sound waves, heat, pressure that interact with sensory receptors. Create proximal stimuli- byproducts like- gas from heat.
photoreceptors
response to electromagnetic waves in the visible spectrum (sight)
mechanoreceptors
respond to pressure or movement. Hair cells, respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear- vibration, rotation, etc
nociceptors
respond to painful or noxious stimuli (somatosensation)
thermoreceptors
respond to changes in temperature (thermosensation)
osmorreceptors
respond to the osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis)
olfactory receptors
respond to volatile compounds (smell)
taste receptors
respond to dissolved compounds (taste)
threshold
the minimum amount of stimulus that renders a difference in perception. Warm to cold in a room, but a subtle decrease in temp throughout the day does not activate past the threshold.
absolute threshold
minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to activate a sensory system. Threshold of sensation, not perception. How bright, loud or intense a stimulus must be before it is sensed.
threshold of conscious perception
th level of intensity that a stimulus must pass in order to be consciously precieved but the brain. Sensory signals can be sent to the CNS without a person perceiving them due to signal being to subtle or brief (subliminal perception)
difference threshold
just noticeable difference. minimum change in magnitude required for an observer to perceive that two different stimuli are different. if below, perceived as the same.
Webers law
observation that difference thresholds are proportional and must be computed as percentages. perception of a number of senses, perception of light, wt of object, etc. ex. take the difference between 2 stimuli (443-440 HZ)= 3. 3 Hz/440 Hz= .0068= 68%
signal detection theory
how internal and eternal factors influence thresholds of sensory and perception. Memory, motives, expectations. Depends on social factors, comfort, etc. “when will you hear your name being called”.
adaption
our ability to detect a stimulus can change overtime. sensory and perceptual components- pupils dilate in dark and constrict to light- physiological (sensory) adaption. focus on relevant stimuli, “get used to “ the cold water
when entering the eye, light first passes through the
cornear,a clear, domelike window int eh front of the eye, which gathers and focuses on incoming light,
sclerea
the white of the eye. protects exposed portions of the yee. does not cover the cornea.
retina
intermost layer of the eye, which contains the actual photoreceptors that transduce light into electrical information the brain can process. converts incoming photons of light to electrical signals, part of CNS.
iris
colored part of the eye composed of 2 muscles.
ciliary body
produces the aqueous humor that bathes the front part of the eye before draining into the canal of schlep.
lens
lies right behind the iris and helps control the refraction of the incoming light.
cones
color vision and sense fine details. effective in bright light
rods
highly sensitize to photons and easy to stimulate by light of any color, not just 3 wavelengths like conses. rods only allow sensation of light and dark.
visual pathways
as the signal taels through the optic nerves to the brain fibers from each side o the retina cross paths (optic chimes) and reorganize. Go to menydiff places in brain- thalamus to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe or superior calculus (reflex)
parallel processing
brains ability to analyze information regarding color, form, motion and depth simlatously using indepentn pathways, recognize a car- its shape and motion- perecueved in seperate pathways.
perception of color
cones
perception of form (shape)
parvocellular cell in the lateral geniculate nucleus - have high color spatial resolution that can detect fine details but only slow moving objects
perception of motion
magnocellar cells- high temporal resolution - high temporal resolution rapid detection of objects approaching us from the sides - low details.
perception of depth perception
ability to discriminate 3D shape of environment and judge distance. binocular neurons compare the inputs to each hemisphere and detecting these differences
feature detection
speciiazed cells that detect a very specific feature of n object- red of sign, letters,
linea accerlation
detected by the utricle and saccule.
rotational accleration
detected by semicircular canals
structures of auditory pathway
pinna (outside part)—- external auditory canal (directs sound waves)- tympanic membrane (eardrum, vibrates based on intensity of sounds - louder is more)- malleus- incus - stapes-oval window (equalize pressure between middle ear and environment)- perilymph in cochlea (transmit vibrations from outside world and cushions inner ear)- basilar membrane- hair cells- situate nerrvve
basilar membrane in the cochlea
tonotopically organized- high pitched sounds cause vibrations at the base of the cochlea, while low pitched sounds cause vibrations at the apex of the cochlea
olfactory pathway
nostril- nasal cavity- olfactory chemorectpros (olfactory nerves) on olfactory epithelium (chem stimuli bind to chemoreceptors to cause a signal)- olfactory bulb- olfactory tract- higher order brain regions, limbic system
`smell is sensitize to
volatil for aerosolized compounds
taste is sensitize to
dissolved compounds
the four main modalities of somatosensation are
pressure, vibration, pain and termpature
bottom up processing
requires each component of an object to be interpreted through parallel processing and then integrated into one cohesive whole.
top down processing
starts with the whole object and through emory, creates expectations for the components of the object
proximity
component close to one another tend to be percieved as a unit
simliarity
components that are similar (color, shape, size) tend to be grouped together
good contineution
components that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together- abrupt changes in form are less lieklythan continuation of the same pattern
subjective contours
edges or shapes that are not actually present can be implied by the surrounding objects
closure
a space enclosed nu a cantos tends to be perceived as a complete figure, such figur3ws tend to be perceived as a more complete than they actually are
pragnanz
perpetual organization will always be as regular, simple and symmetric as possible.
gestalt principles
general rules that account for the fact the brain tends to view incomplete stimuli in organized pattern ways.
learning
how we acquire new behavior
habitation
repeated exposure to the same stimulus
sub threshold stimulus
stimuli to weak to have a response
dishabituation
recovery of a response to a stimulus after habitation has occurred- car on highway and then something happens- new awareness
associative learning
association between 2 stimuli of between a behavior and a response
classical conditioning
type of association learning that takes advantage of instincts to create associations between 2 unrelated stimuli. Pavolv
unconditioned stimulus and response
innate reflexive response to stimulus
salivate when smelling bread
meat
neutral stimuli
dont produce a relieve response- bell in Pavlov- turned into conditioned stimulus- a normally neutral stimulus that through association causing relexive response to a conditioned response
motication
purpose or driving force in our behavior
directed towards minizming pain, maximizing pleasure, desire, appetite
rewards and punishment
extrinsic motivation
rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desire behavior is not achieved.
do chores to avoid punishment
study mCAT- external tangible awards
competetion
intrinsic motivation
motivation that comes from within oneself
drives interest and pure enjoyment in task
instinct theory
innate fixed patterns of behavior
certai nbevahiors are based on evolutionary programmed instincts
arousal
reign awake and reactive to stimuli/,
people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal: seeking to increase it when low and decrease it when high
drives
internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals.
originate without requiring any external factors to motivate behavior
drives help eliminate an uncomfortable state
primary drives
the need for food, water and warmth motivate us to sustain homeorstaisis (negative feedback loop)
secondary drives
learning - drive to go to med school and become a doctor
drive reduction theory
motivation Is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states
primary needs
physioglical needs such as food water sleep
secondary needs
mental state- need for power, social life
Maslow’s hierarchy of needsq
primate and essential need at the base
base- physioglocial (breathing, sleep, sex, food)
safety (Secruity, employment, health, family)
love- friend , husband, family
esteem- self esteem confidence, achievement
self-actualization- creativity, morality,- ones full potential
motivation influence by
needs, arousal, drive and instincts
self determination theory
empathizes the role of three universal needs- autonomy (control of ones own actions), competency (excel at diff tasks) snd relateness- need to feel welcome and wanted in relationships
incentive theory
explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishment
expectancy value theory
the amount of motivation needed to reach. goal is the result of both the individual expectation of success in reaching that goal and the degree to which he or she values succeeding at the goal
opponent proces theory
when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body Will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology
counteract alcohol (a depressant) by increasing arousal can last longer than the drug and create withdrawl- the opposite effect of the drug and create jittery , anxiety and therefore create dependence
tolerance- a decrease in perceived drug effect over time
emotion
instintintive state of mind derived from ones circumstances , mood, or relationship with others
physioglica response, behavioral response, cognitive response
physioglical response
change in heart rate, breathing, skin, BP
fear aggression embarrassment !
behavioral response
facial expressions and body language
smile, high five, handshake
frowning, slumping
cognitive response
subjective interpret ion of the feeling being expereinced
Universal emotions
Darwin- all humans evolved the same set of facial muscles to show the same expressions regardless of culture
Ekman- 6 basic set of emoions- happy, sad, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger
evltonary perspective of emotion
everything we do, think and feel is based on specialized functional programs designed for any problem we encounter
emotions like fear were evolutionary - same with guilt nd pride
James lange theory
a stimulus results first in physiological arousal, which leads to a secondary response in which the emotion is labeled. when peripheral organs receive information and respond, that response is then labeled as an emotion by the brain.
I mist be angry because my skin is hot
spain cord injuries show less emotion?
Cannon Bard theory
physiology arousal and emotion occur at the same time, not in sequin. experience emotions mentally and physically then respond (behavior()
I see a snake, so I feel afraid and my heart is racing…let me out!
schachter -singer theory
both physiology arousal and labelling based on environment are required to experience an emotion
I am excited because my heart is racing and everyone else is happy
amgyldala
involved with attention and emotions = fear. helps interpret facial expressions and is part of intricntic memory system for emotional memory
thalamus
sensory processin system
hypothalamus
relewases NT that affect mood and arousal
hippocampus
create song term explicit memories (episodic)
ventromedial preforontal cortex
involved in decision making and controlling emotional responses from the amgydala.
cognitive appraisal
evolution of a situation that induces stress
primary appraisal
initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat
irrevlant, benign positive or stressful
if threat, then secondary appraisal
secondary appraisal
directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress
harm or damage, theret, potential for future damage caused by event or the potential to overcome and benefit.
stages of general adaption sndrome
1, alarm- activation of sympathetic NS. release of ACTH and cortisol , stimulation of adrenal medulla to secrete EPi and NOR
- resistance- cont release of hormones activates Sympath NS
- exhaustion - cna no longer matin elevated sympath NS activity - illness and medical conditions, organ system deters, death
common stressors
environmental or physical discomfort, daily events, work school. . effective stress management - relax
symbolic interactionism
studying the symbols we communicate:
humans act toward symbols based on the meanings that these signals carry
the meaning that symbols carry come from social interaction
humans interpret the meaning of symbols and this interpretation influences action.
facial expressions, gestures, language, traffic signs, smiley faces, Star of David, etc
lower aniams- respond to stimuli, humans- capability to interpret the stimulus first, then react
different in human cultures
social construct
any idea that has been created and accepted by the people in a society, a social constructionism is the attempt to understand a society through the society’s social consutrcts
implicit social agreement carries meaning of the symbol- like the peace sign changing meaning from nuclear disarm to peace
also abstract ideas like honor and justice rely on group agreement , money, gender roles, work ethics
rational choice theory
micro to meso apparoach (just like social construct and symbolic interactions) and focuses on individuals decision making. humans will make rational choices to further their own self interests- weighing costs and benefits
rationa transactions- money- involvement
rewards (accomhlimsnet, approval)
punishments (humiliation, harassment)
also called social exvhabe theory when evaluate peoples relationships - same with costs and benefits
conflict theory
macro theory that attempts to understand society by examining conflicts between groups in society
capitalism
individuals and corporations rather than gov own and control productions, factories, salable foods
leads to capitalists or bourgeosiase class who control working class
powerful v. powerless in age, religion
structural functionalism
inverse of conflict theory
how large societies surivive over long time periods and concerned with social cohesion and stability
each group has a role in overall health of a society
diff groups work together automatically toward maintenance of equilibrium in society
manifest funcction- intended consequence of teh actions of a group
latent functions- unintended but beneficial consequences
feminist theory
institutional power structures that disadvantage women in society
patriachal- men seeking to preserve their position of power of women though society prvilidge and discmrination
beneficane
physicians has a responsible to act in patients best interest
nonmalefience
do not harm, avoid Tretments in which harm outweighs beneift
respect for patient autonomy
respect patients decisions about their ownhealthcare
justice
treat similar patients with similar care
life course approach to health
maintaining and considering view of patients history beyond immediate presenting symptoms
material culture
focuses on teh artifacts associated with a group:physical objects like artwork, clothing, foods
symbolic culture
focuses on ideas and principles to a group
a value
what a person deems to be important
belief
what a person deems to be true
race
phenotypic differences between groups of people
ehtnicity
based on common language, religion, nationality and culture
symbolic ethnicity
recognition of ethic identify on social occasions or specific circumstances, but not everyday life
LIKE —-st patties day
fertility rate is the
average number of children a women has during her lifetime in a population
birth rate
number of births in apopulation per unit time, births per 1000 people per year
mortality rate
number of deaths in a population per unit time, deaths per 1000 people per year
demographic transition
mortality adn birth rates decrease
in a country a a country develops for preindustrial to industrial- stable population
proACTive social movements
are in favor of a specific social change
reactive social movements
run against a specific social change
social action
which is defined as actions and behaviors that individuals are performing or modulation gbecgase others are around
social interaction
behavior or action of 2 or more individuals who take one anther into account- opposite of social action
social faciliation
people perform better on simple tasks in the presence of others
people exhibit a performance response when being watched
Yerkes dodson- presence of theres raise arousal, which enhance the ability to perform tasks one is already good at (simple) and hinder performance of complex tasks.
deindividuation
loss of one’s self awanress in a group setting and the associated adoption of a more group oriented identity.
“mob mentality”
group concession adn anonymity
sports team fans
leads to antinormatie behavior0 behavior that is not socially accepted in most social circumances. - riots
bystander effect
individuals do not intervene to assist those who are in perceived need when other people are around
less likely to notice danger
social loafing
tendency of individuals to reduce effort when in a group setting
carrying heavy objects, group projects
peer pressure
social influence placed on an individual by its peers for social acceptance
alcohol, behavior, attunes
identity shift effect
when an individuals state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will conform to the norms of the group. but experience internal conflict bc behavior is outride their norm and so adopts the standards of group as their own
cognitive dissonacne
presence of 2 opposing thoughts or opinions, leading to internal discomfort adn manifesting as anxiety, anger, etc. reduce discomfort by rationliaing
Conformity
ASH!
group polarization
tendency for groups to make decision tg that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group
riskier decisions or cautious decisions
political beliefs - one side
groupthink
social phenomena in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decisions.
want to mimizaie conflict
influence by cohesion, group structure, leadership
remain loyal
culture
bellies, behaviors and action and char of a group or society of people
based on learning, expectations and pressure from group
assimilatiton
process by which an individual or groups behavior and culture begin to resemble that f another group
2+ cultures mere
interhegrte aspects of diff societies and cultures into 1
not an even blend
melting pot- diff elements
mulitculturalism
cultural diversities - refers to communities or societies containing multiple cultures or ethnic groups- celebrates and encourages and respects cultural differences
mosaic- coexist
ethic enclaves
locations with high concentrations of one specific ethnicity
socialization
process of developing inheriting adn spreadning norms, customs and beliefs necessary for inclusion of society. passed down through cultural learning and spreading is called cultural difucsion
primary socialization
occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through the observation of our parents and other adults. sets the stage for fur socialization and opinions
secondary socialzation
process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of larger society- outside home
thrive at school
adolescent based
norms
societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior
social stigma
extreem disapproval or dislike of. a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society.
HIV, obesity
conformity
changing beliefs or ehvaiors in order to fit into a group of society.
normative- fit in because fear and rejection
compliance
individuals change their behavior based on the request of others who do not wield authority over the individual
foot in the door- small request, and after gaining compliance, a larger request is made
labeling theory
labels given to a person affect not only how others respond to that person, but also effect the persons self image
endorse labels - gangs= role engulf mane
door in the face
larger request made first and if refused a second request is made
lowball techniqye
requestor will get an initial commitment for an individual and then raise the cost of the commitment. agree with boss for 5 hours to work, but doesn’t take into account the HW that is due
thats not all technique
individual is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told that the deal is even bette then they opted
obedience
is changing one’s behavior in response to a direct order or expectation expressed by an authority figure
teacher demands something - obeying not complying
social cognition
focuses o the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior
three components of attitude are
affective (a person feels toward something, emotion- snakes scare me), behavioral (person acts in respect to something-avoid snakes) and cognitive (tinks about something- justification of other 2- knowing snakes can be posionous)
the four functional areas of functional attitude theory
knowledge (attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences, and knowing the attitudes of others help predict their behavior), ego expression (communicate and solidify our self identity- wear a hat to support a sport team) , adaption (expressed socially acceptable attitudes will lead to acceptance and social bonds- u like eagles too?) and ego defense (protect self esteem or justify our actions that e know is wrong)
routes of processing used to explain the elaboration likelihood model
attitudes change that separates individuals on a continuum based on how they process persuasive information. central route processing (high elaboration, deep thinking- think deeply) and peripheral route processing (focus on superficial details, appearance of person delivering argument, slogans)
3 interactive factors of Banduras triadic reciprocal causation are (social cog theory)
behavior (through observation and replication), personal factors (thoughts about behavior) and environment (where behavior is observed)
SES
determined by 2 facts- physical or external char such as age, gender, or skin color (ascribed) OR acquired though direct efforts such as hard work or merit
the less social capitol (investment people make in their society in return for economic awards)
the less equality of opportunity the more social inequality and therefore decrease social cohesion
socioeconomic gradient
improvement in healthcare as one moves up with status
prestige
amount of positive regard society has for a given person
doctors have high status and respect adn prestige
power
ability to affect others behavior through real or perceived award and punishments , based on unequal distribution of valued resources
class concsiouness
organization of he working class around shared goals and recognition for collective action
false consciousness
misperception of one’s actual position within society
anomie
lack of widely accepted social norms and breakdown of social bonds between individual and society
strain theory - how this leads to deviance
idolsyio, recessive individualisms, fdecrease social solidatary (cohesion)
social integration
movement of new populations into a larger culture while maintaining their ethic identities
social inequality
high amount racial and ethic minorities (AA and hispanic) , female families and old people. prevalent in those living in poverty
social mobility can be dependent on
intellectual talent and achievement (meritocracy) but also concentrated power adn discrimination based on ethnicityy, gender m age, etc
moving up the ladder of social status
environmental hazards
tend to be located in low income areas with higher populations of racial adn ethic minorities. poor living conditions increase illness and disease
Socioeconomic improvement
lead to greater genderal health
second sickness
exacerbatioons of health outcomes caused by social injustice
low income groups are more likely to have poorer health and higher outcomes are exacerbated by social inequalities and social justice
low income racial and ethnic mines have higher m
morbidity rates and overall worse health compared to upper and middle class lower will have higher infant mortalityy rates, hmicide and sucicie rates as combared to wealthy
women have better health and loner ilfe
than men. biological and sociological causes- less likely to have life threatening conditions although they do have higher morbidity rates
more likely to seek care adn utilize care services
low income grousp
have less access to healthcare services adn often experience lower quality heal tare. poor AM. less insured adn less likely to seek medical attention unless rlly serious
morbidity adn mortality high among low income groups
retrospective chart review
past records are examined, pre-recorded patient center4ed data are used to answer one or more research questions
prospective chart review
review incoming data
embedded field study
researchers posed as patients Or as the members you study
longutiduinal study
analysis of participants over time
cross sectional design
a population at a single point in time, looking for predictive relationships among variables
show correlations, not cuasation
experimental design
manipulating certain variables - IV- to see effect (DV)
negative controls
treatments with no efects
positive controls
treatments have a certain effect adn therefore can be used to assess whether the experimental methodology was sound
confounding
external variables affecting both teh IV an DV
moderating
attneuate or strengthen a given relationship
having a higher SES vs. people not
mediating
link between IV and DV
opiod angalgesics mimic
the effects of endorphins. , which naturally inhibit pain by blocking the release of certain NT at nociceptors
endorphins are produced in the anterior pit gland, along with other hormones like LH, FSH and GH
hormones produced posterior pit
vasopressin (fluid reuptake in kidney), oxytocin (hormone associated with emotional bonding)
adrenal cortex hormones
aldosterone (which responds to changes in BP) and cortisol (mediates body response to chronic stress)
adrenal medulla secretes
epi ada norepi , primary hormones with sympathetic and parasym nervous system
opiod creats
pupillary constriction, so withdraws produces opposite effects
depreassants
cause relaxation by reducing NS activity
alcohol stimulates GABA (decreased anxiety) and dopamine (promotes euphoria)
slows activity of frontal lobe, reducing judeegmenet and lowering inhibitions, speech slurred and motor skills diminished
opiates
morphine codeine
euprhoai and decreased reaction to pain by binding to opiod receptors in NS
death when brain stops sending signals for respiration
eventually stop producing natural endorphins
stimulants increase arousal in teh NS
through release and inhibition of reuptake of dopamine, nor and ser
increasing arousal, heart rate , BP and creates anxiety, delsuoiisn of grandeur, euphoria, hyper vigilance and decreased appaeitute
halluncinogens
LSD adn ketamine, distort perception , enhance sensory experience and increase heart Tate, blood pressure, body temp adn dilate pupils
marijuana
stimulant, depressant and hallucinogen
has chemical THC which increases production of GABA and dopamine
increase in appetite, dry mouth, fatigue, eye redness, low BP and increased heart rate
drive reduction theories
suggest that depressions stems from a reduction in the motivating forces of arousal
cognitive theorist
arousal is essential to sustaining most behaviors
arousal theory
people behave or act in certain ways to maintain a level of optimal arousal
Yerkes Dodson law
performance of a behavior tends to be negatively impacted at high and low levels of arousal
upside down U shape
development of depression
frontal lobe(ability to protect future consequences of current actions), limbic system(regulate emotion and memory) and hypothalamus (hormones, mood regulation)
dissociative
disruption of perceptions, identity, memory, awareness- feel disconnected from reality
personality disorders
long lasting maladaptive patterns of behavior that can impair cognition, emotion na interpersonal behavior and communication and impulse control
somatic disorders
stress and impairment
lack cause
irrational fears of devleopping a disease
incidience
number of new cases of a dais during a specific time interval
risk ratio
compares risk of thing among one group with risk among another group
pervalance
describes how common a thing is. how many people (new cases and current) have a thing with a certain amount o time
mortality
describes the number of deaths caused by a thing within a specific population and a certain amount of time
epidemiology
study of how health and illnesses are distributed across populations
social epidemiology
how societal factors influence disruption of health and illness
uneven distrbution of risk factors across position results in health dispartiies
exist based on geography, gender, environment, SES, race, etc
external locus of control
no control over events in their lives and the things that happen to them
case control design
compare info about indivuusla with a disease or condition against people without the disease or condition
rewards the reinforce behavior
operant conditioning
schemata
networks of information that allow certain other kinds of info to be transmitted more easily
primry socialiation
learning of acceptable actions and attitudes during childhood from observing parents, siblings, etc
secondary socialization
refers to teh process of learning what is acceptable and appropriate in a smaller, more focused section of society like work
anticipatory socialization
refers to teh process by which we prepare for future changes that we anticipate
switching sleep schedule if we go on night shifts in the future
RESOCIALIZATION
the process through which we get rid of old behaviors in order to take on new ones
training of soldiers to obey orders and behave within the rigor confines of military life
factors that drive and influence socialization (social norms, custom and belief systems)
change - called agents of socialization- from parents to media to work
social constructionism
people develop understandings and knowledge of the world through interactions with other people, mediation force is primarily language
“to be a good girl”
Symbolic interactionism
ocuses on the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interactions. Smoking-In previous years—and to some extent in certain social circles now—smoking was seen as trendy, whereas in others it may be seen negatively as a symbol of poor self-regard and ignorance.
Conflict theory
emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order.
society in groups that compete for social and economic resources
social order maintained by those with the most power, greatest political, economic and social capitol
functionailsm
views society as a system of interconnected parts that carry out a specific role that enables them to cooperate to maintain social equilibrium for society as a whole.
sociobiology
Sociobiology holds that some social differences are actually rooted in biology. This theory applies evolutionary biology to help explain social behaviors.
rational choice theory
eople make individualistic, rational, and calculated decisions about all things in their lives. Since money is of primary importance to most people, individuals are often motivated by money and will calculate the costs and benefits of any action before deciding what to do.
social exchange theory
iews society as a series of interactions that are based on estimates of rewards and punishments. Similar to rational choice theory, social exchange posits that interactions are determined by the rewards or punishments that we receive from others
even with relationships- more trouble that benefit
gestalt law of closure
connect together pieces
law of sinilairty
grouped together similar things
law of symmetry
symtretr around center point
proximity
close to each other in groups, rather than large collection of individual pieces
sensation
information from environment are converted into electrical signals within NS
communication
perceptions
processin new info
ethnocentrisim
own culture is superior to others
reconstructive bias
related to memory
not as accurate was the think especially in times of high stress
social desirability bias
how people respond to research questions
respond a certain way to please researcher adn respond in a more socially acceptable way
people answer questions in a way they think is socially beneficial to them.
attrition bias
participants drop out of long term experiment or study
selection bias
how people are chosen to participant
representativeness heuristic
the tendency to make decisions about actions or events based upon our standard representations of those events
availability heuristic
tendency to make decisions about how likely an action or event is based upon how readily available similar information is in our memories
in which people make judgments overly based on information that is immediately available to them.
belie bias
tendency that people have to judge things based not upon sound logic, but upon already held beliefs
Confirmation bias
tendency that people have to focus on information that is in agreement with the beliefs they already have, rather than the information that is contrary to those beliefs.
fundamental attribution error
tendency to place less importance on the import of a situation or context on behavior, and instead place undue emphasis on dispositional or internal qualities in order to explain behavior.
actor-observer bias.
we often blame our own actions on external situations but the actions of others on personality.
self-serving bias
tendency people have to credit their successes to themselves and their failures either to the actions of others or to situations.
bolster self esteem
distress
negative stress that boils over time and bad for body
threatening and body primed to respond to threat
eustress
positive stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging but motovating
neutrress
neutral stress
exposed to something stressful, but not directly affects you
natural disaster across the world
hypothalamus secretes CRH which stimulates pit gland to produce ACTH which stimulates
cortisol from adrenal gland
helps supply sugar to sustain stress response buy increasing gluconeogenesis and mobilizing free AA and FA from body to be metabolized- free glucose needed for brain function
fixed ratio
behavior is reinforced after a specific number of responses- rat gets treat every 3rd push of lever
variable ratio
behavior is reinforced after an average but unpredictable number of responses
1 out of every 10 presses , but exact number of presses vary
variale tatio
behavior is reinforced after an average but unpredictable number of responses
fixed interval
behavior is refincfed after a specific amount of time has passed.
deindividuation
person in a group loses awareness of their indiviudality and acting on way they wouldn’t normally act if they were alone
social loafing
one person in a group doesn’t take on their share of responsibility - group projects
group polrizat6ion
adopt extreme views in a group
bystander effect
stand in stiuation when someone is in risk
Social facilitation
endency that people have to perform simple tasks better or more efficiently when in the presence of other people. Inversely, when performing a complex or new task, the presence of others can hinder one’s performance.
Social conformity,
tendency for individuals to adopt the behaviors, attitudes, and values of other members of a group
internlization
when an individual genuinely agrees with the values/behaviors/attitudes that he or she is conforming with and finds the behavior to be inherently rewarding.
identification
the acceptance of other people’s ideas without thinking critically about them.
compliance
occurs when an individual yields to social pressure (typically in response to a direct request) because he or she wishes to get a positive reaction from another individual or group, or to avoid social disapproval by others.
obedience
authoity to directly compel someone to engage in certain behavior
self fullfilling prohency
shape behavior based on assumptions
informational social influence
turn to tothers in grou to what is correct
emotion components
physiology arousal (reacts), expressive displays (express0 and subject experience (how you interpret emotions)
Persuasion
an individual or group (the audience) is encouraged to adopt an idea, attitude, or course of action.
not threaten
“foot-in-the-door” technique
getting a person to agree to a small request, like asking them to purchase a small item, followed by making a much larger request.
“door-in-the-face” technique,
wherein the initial request is unreasonably large and is therefore rejected. The initial large request is then followed by a smaller, more reasonable-sounding request that is much more likely to be accepte
cog dissonane
person holding 2 contradictory belies at teh same time
context clues
clarity of objects to percieve depths
sight
Light enters the eye through the clear portion at the front of it, the cornea. Because the cornea is highly curved, light is refracted as it passes through it. The cornea also protects the eye. Light then passes through the pupil, which can be constricted or dilated by the autonomic nervous system to allow appropriate amounts of light in. It then moves through the lens, which can be precisely adjusted by the ciliary muscle to ensure that light is focused on the retina, which is located at the back of the eye. The retina is part of the central nervous system that contains the photoreceptors (cones and rods) that convert light into electrical impulses to be sent to the brain. Cones perceive color and fine detail, while rods allow for the perception of light and dark. Once the light is transformed into nervous system signals, the information travels along different routes depending on the direction from which the light entered the eye, as shown below.`
optic chiasm
ibers corresponding to the left visual field from both eyes are projected onto the right side of the brain,
criterion validity
whether a variable is able to predict a certain otucome
external validity
generlizaility of research beyond study
consutrct validty
manners in which terms of the study are defined
socialization
how individuals attunes are shapd by social factors
symbolic interactionslim
individals experiences influence his or her perceptions
urbanization
pattern of movement from rural areas to citiies
globalization
increasing interaction and integration on international scale through exchange of products etc
vertical mobility
movement from one social level to a hgiher one or lower one by either changting jobs or marrying
groupthink
want harmony and conformity
self reported info awalsy
vulnerbale to subjective bias
opponent process theory
self destructive behavor
like addiciton
cog dissonance
desire consistency beteen their thoughts, values and actions
drive eduction theotyrqreduce basic bio drives like hunger
thirst or repdoruction
expectancy value toery
motivation to achieve a goal through person expectation and value reaching goal
high value and expect, less motivation needed to complete it1
apparoch apparoach conflict
two options are appealing
avoidant avoidance
both unappealing
apparoch avoidant
1 option has both positive and negative asects
double apparoach avoidant
2 options where both are appealing and negatuive char
meritocracy
individual reawarded based on skill talent etc
oligarchy
small number of indiviudal srecieve all the apper
parallel play
Parallel play involves children playing adjacently to each other and observing each other, but not actually playing together or interacting. This is a behavior common to younger children, so it would be observed with higher frequency among the 4-year-olds. The 8-year-olds would be more likely to interact with each other while playing.
Piaget stages of development
the first stage, termed the sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), the individual experiences the world exclusively through sensing and moving through their environment. A key event in this stage is the development of object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even though we are not looking at them.
Preoperational stage (ages 2-7). Here, the individual develops symbolic thinking, or the idea that things and ideas can be represented through symbols such as words or gestures. During this stage, children tend to focus on a single aspect of a thing or experience, a phenomenon called centration, and they also display an inability to comprehend conservation, or the idea that a quantity remains the same despite a change in shape. Children in this stage are egocentric, meaning they do not understand that other people have thoughts or perspectives different from their own.
The third stage is the concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11). Here, children develop an understanding of conservation and begin to understand mathematics. They also become less egocentric and can think logically about concrete events and objects, but they still have not developed a full capacity for abstract thought. Have deductive reasoning - one or more reasons to one conclusion.
Finally, the fourth stage is the formal operational stage (age 12+). Here, people develop the abilities of abstract and moral reasoning.
Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development.
look at screenshot
socialization
process of internalizing the social norms and values expected in one’s society, and mass media (such as popular music) is one source of normal socialization.
assimilation
when an individual from one culture gradually takes on characteristics of another culture.
functionalist theory of social stratification?
social inequalities are functional for society because they provide an incentive for the most talented individuals to occupy jobs that are essential to the orderly maintenance of a society.
conflict theory of education
Conflict theory asserts that bias and inequality are underlying aspects of education.
Abraham Maslow’s self-actualization theory
think triangle!!
self-actualization is a level of high achievement, in which you have done all you can and accomplished your goals to the best of your ability. This theory fits best with the idea that education should help children develop and reach their highest potential. Note that self-actualization is only one part of Maslow’s larger theory, termed his hierarchy of needs (shown below). According to this theory, individuals must fulfill the lower needs (like physiological or safety needs) before being free to work towards fulfilling the higher needs, of which self-actualization is the highest.
like physioglcial, safety, love and belonging, esteem , def actulization
superego frued
Freud’s superego is an aspect of the subconscious that emphasizes moral behavior.
skinner operant theory
Skinner’s operant conditioning theory is based on the idea that reward and punishment guide behavior.
Leon Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory
Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory suggests that incongruence between beliefs and behaviors guides behavior change.
Cultural relativism
Cultural relativism is the principle that a person’s beliefs and health behaviors should be understood in the context of their own culture.
laws
established standards of behavior that are written down and have very clear consequences.
taboos
Taboos are considered unacceptable by almost every culture (like cannibalism or incest).
Mores
Mores are norms that are deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society and have consequences if violated. Health behaviors (like seeking help for an acute medical illness) are standards of behavior that are necessary for the well-being of everyone; if a person does not seek help, they may be shunned by family members or friends.
folkways
olkways are norms that govern everyday behavior (like holding a door open).
test retest bias
Test-retest bias can happen when participants take the same exam over and over again, which affects their responses
researcher bias
design is bias
kinship of affinity?
A kinship of affinity is one in which individuals are related by choice, such as through marriage, rather than through blood (blood relation), such as the other choices.
higher fertility
Higher fertility rates tend to be associated with lower quality-of-life indicators.
higher median age
Having a higher median age suggests that people are more likely to die from age-related causes, leading to a higher mortality rate. However, affluent countries tend to have higher median ages than less affluent countries.
Harry Harlow
monkeys after neglectful situation could not be fixed by then going to cloth mom. also with both moms ate and grew but just spent more time with cloth mom
John B. Watson’sLittle Albert
involved the use of classical conditioning andstimulus generalization to cause a healthy young boy to fear furry animals andobjects.
freud
unconscious desires. Freud’s work centered around his ideas of the id (one’s largely unconscious set of primal urges), superego (one’s sense of moral purpose), and ego (the logic-based, more conscious balance between the two). Freud put his theories into practice in psychoanalytic therapy, a process in which a psychologist or other therapist converses with a patient one-on-one to address certain mental or emotional issues.
skinner
behaviorist, meaning that he systematically studied behavior in conjunction with other factors (environmental,motivational, etc.). Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning,where he used a device called a “Skinner box” to study the effects of rewards and punishments on behavior.
Allport
personality, where he outlined a form of trait theory that included three basic types of traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are those around which people organize their entire lives. In contrast, central traits are defining characteristics of a person that can be easily inferred from that person’s behavior. Finally, secondary traits are those that only occur sometimes,particularly when a person is in a certain social situation.
Asch
conformity experiment demonstrated that individuals often conform to a group view,even when the group view differs from a clearly correct answer. Asch used a task in which a participant, along with several of Asch’s confederates, were told to judge the relative lengths of drawn lines. The confederates would give a clearly-incorrect opinion regarding which line was shorter or longer, causing the participant (who did not know that the others in the room were “in on it”) to conform to this incorrect view in some cases.
Bandura
cognitive psychologist, famously conducted his “Bobo doll” experiments,which showed that children can display observational learning for aggressive behavior when they watch adults exhibit such behavior.
Zimbardo
ocused on the effects of power and authority on individuals.Participants designated as “guards” were given power over participants designated as “prisoners,” and over time, the guards began to exhibit progressively more abusive and problematic behavior.
Milgram
authority. This experiment indicated that participants were willing to administer painful stimuli to others if instructed to do so by an authority figure. In reality, the “others” in the study were actors who were simply pretending to be shocked.
Maslow
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, a schematic of human needs in order from the most basic (food, water, etc.) to the most high-level(self-actualization).
Eysenck
studied personality with a strong focus on the biological perspective, which considers personality differences to be the result of biological factors.
Harlow
examined parent/child attachment, social isolation, and dependency in rhesus monkeys.
Cave
xperiment examined the intergroup conflicts that arise in response to competition over limited resources.
anomie
Anomie refers to society feeling fragmented and lacking cohesiveness.
face validity
the extent to which a study appears to assess what it is intended to assess—that is, more or less, the degree to which it “seems right” to participants and researchers
external validity
generzliable to the whole population- issues regarding the size and representativeness of the sample.
content validity
refers to whether a study comprehensively accounts for all the relevant facets of the phenomenon it is intended to investigate.
internal validity
to the degree to which causal conclusions can be drawn from a study, which can include accounting for potential confounding variables
EEG
electrical impulses in the brain by covering the scalp with small sensors. Researchers can then present the subject with various stimuli and record which areas of the brain demonstrate increased electrical activity.
scientists can watch the level of blood flow in parts of the brain.
By injecting a tracer molecule, scientists are able to image which parts of the brain are more active in response to certain stimuli. More active brain areas will see an increase in blood flow, and thus an increase in the tracer molecule.
MRI
se magnetic fields and radio waves to image parts of the brain while avoiding the dangers of bombarding the body with ionizing radiation such as X-rays.
fMRI
trades spatial resolution for temporal resolution and allows scientists to map active parts of the brain. It does so by analyzing the differences in oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin concentration in parts of the brain.
PET scans
njecting the patient with a radioactive analogue of glucose, and then measuring the radioactive emissions from the body. Much like MRI and fMRI, PET scans work on the principle that more active areas of the brain will show increased metabolism, and thus increase their uptake of glucose. Such uptake can then be converted into a false-color “heat map” of the brain to show areas of increased or decreased activity. PET scans are also frequently used for imaging designed to detect cancer in any part of the body, due to the increased glucose flux through tumor cells
CT scans
use X-rays, but unlike a typical single two-dimensional X-ray film, CT machines use computer processing to take many X-ray measurements from multiple different angles, generating images that can be used for diagnosis. CT scans can provide high-resolution images, but unlike fMRI, CT is not useful for imaging processes in progress.
Darwinin theory of emotion
evolution of emotion in reproducing
cog appraisal theory of emotion
individuals make different interpretations about stimuli, such as interpreting stigma negatively or non-negatively.
primary aging
Primary aging describes the aging of biological factors and the physical body (II).
secondary aging
Aging that relates to behavioral factors like diet and exercise
general adaptation syndrome.
to describe the body’s short-term and long-term reactions to stress. Selye thought that the general adaptation syndrome involved two major systems of the body, the nervous system and the endocrine system. He then went on to outline what he considered as three distinctive stages in the syndrome’s evolution. He called these stages the alarm reaction (AR), the stage of resistance (SR), and the stage of exhaustion (SE).
house money effect
psychological trick that people fall into when they make significant profit in a short period of time. They take on greater risks or gamble with an amount they otherwise would not have gambled with ordinarily, not fearing the drawdown that might occur within the period.
conflict theory
ndividuals compete with each other in society over limited resources. Because of this, certain institutions, such as corporations, rise to the top (II). Groups can also come together, such as in a union (I).
functionalism
goods and services are traded
marginlization
rejection of both cutures
anomie theory
that individuals who experience weakened social values are less likely to behave in ways that are helpful to that society
Relative deprivation theory
posits that individuals who perceive themselves as having less resources than others will often act in ways to obtain these resources.
parietal lobe
sensory info
reciprocal determinism.
Bandura that a person’s behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the environment. In this scenario, the skeptic does not believe in the supernatural power of a medium, but attends multiple séances where they may see evidence that could soften their views. It appears this behavior of attending séances, in conjunction with the social environment of others who attend the séances, caused the skeptic’s views on supernatural phenomena to shift.
subjective norms
Subjective norms refer to the perceived social pressure to engage or to not engage in a behavior.
Social facilitation
improved performance in a group
social control
enforcemnet of confrmity
Social cognitive theory
Social cognitive theory asserts that people learn by watching others, and if they see someone is rewarded for a behavior, they are more likely to behave that way too.
formal positive sanction
is an official reward for an action or behavior. For example, individuals who help others in a crisis are often given a reward or a medal for doing so.
formal negative sancion
official punishment for an action or behavior; for example, a customer who was violent with others may be banned from a store for life – this is a consequence enforced by a group or organization, the business or store.
informal negative sanction
An informal sanction is an action by a peer or group of peers that is meant to make behavior more normative. It usually involves shaming or ridicule, which is considered a punishment. When the media shames people who engage in non-normative behavior (acting like a jerk while shopping), they are trying to enforce norms in an informal way.
ideal bureaucracy
hierarchael structure
specialized jobs
protectionalism
refers to a country rejecting trade with others and being isolative, which is inversely proportional to globalization.
median is not
influenced by outliers like mean or range
retrospective intererence
learning of new information impairs the proper retrieval of older memories
proactive interference
the tendency of previously learned material to hinder subsequent learning.
anterograde amnesia
is a defect in the ability to form new memories, often as a result of hippocampal damage.
Mirror neurons are thought to be located in the premotor cortex (part of the frontal lobe), as well as in parts of the parietal lobe.
both
cerebellum
procedural memory
consenus cue
Consensus cues focuses on the closeness of the behavior to that which is typically expected by society. If everyone fails organic chemistry, then Anna’s behavior is seen as aligning with the consensus, and the committee attributes it to situational factors (a hard class)
Kelley’s covariation model.
types of cue that we utilize to decide whether an attribution should be situational, dispositional, or some combination of both. Of these types, distinctiveness refers to the frequency that the person behaves this way in different situations or environments. Consensus relates to the level of acceptance of the behavior in society, while consistency deals with the similarity of the person’s behavior over time.
vicitm blaming
is victim-blaming is most prevalent when the incident has severe consequences and when we perceive ourselves as similar to the victim.
Broca’s area is primarily involved in the production of speech.
Wernicke’s area is involved in the comprehension, not the production, of speech. An individual with Wernicke’s aphasia would be able to produce fluent-sounding words and sentences, but they would be nonsensical.
Broca’s area is primarily involved in the production of speech.
Wernicke’s area is involved in the comprehension, not the production, of speech. An individual with Wernicke’s aphasia would be able to produce fluent-sounding words and sentences, but they would be nonsensical.
natitivist theory
he nativist theory posits that humans have an innate ability to acquire language. Additionally, it states that language development is subject to a “critical period” that extends from year two until puberty.
