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New Biology Flashcards

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1
Q

Nares

A

In the nose. Has vibrissae (nasal hairs) to filter air

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2
Q

order of air

A

nasal, pharynx, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles

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3
Q

pharyx

A

air and food. food goes to the esophagus, air goes to lungs.

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4
Q

larynx

A

also called the glottis- (covered by the epiglottis) - has 2 vocal cords and to the trachea and into the bronchi

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5
Q

pleurae

A

surround each lung
visceral pleura - inner
parietal pleura- outer

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6
Q

interpleural space

A

contains a thin layer of fluid - lubricates the two pleura

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7
Q

inhalation

A

involves external intercostal muscles, intrTHROACIC VOLUME INCREASES

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8
Q

negative pressure breathign

A

air flows from high pressure to low pressure

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9
Q

exhalation

A

use internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, which appose teh external and pull the rib cage down.
surfactant prevents the complete collapse of alveoli during exhalation by reducing surface tension at the alveolar surface

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10
Q

total lung capacity

A

the max volume of air in the lungs when one inhales - 6 to 7 liters

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11
Q

residual volume

A

the volume of air remaining in the lungs when one exhales completely

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12
Q

vital capacity

A

the difference between min and max volume of air in the lungs (TLC-RV)

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13
Q

Tidal volume

A

the volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath

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14
Q

expiratory reserve volume

A

the volume of additional air that can ve forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation

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15
Q

inspirator reserve volyme

A

the volume of additional air that can be forcible inhaled after a normal inhalation

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16
Q

ventilation is controlled by the

A

medulla oblongata - ventilation center

neurons contain chemoreceptors sensitize to CO2

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17
Q

CO2 rise

A

hypercarbia/hypercapnia- resp rate will also rise so more CO2 is exhaled , causing CO2 levels to fall in the blood

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18
Q

hypoxia

A

low O2 conditions

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19
Q

capilarries bring deoxy blood from the pulmonary arteries

A

to the lungs (from teh R ventricle)

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20
Q

oxygenated blood returns to the LA of the heart via the

A

pulmonary veins

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21
Q

driving force of gas exchange

A

pressure differences in gas

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22
Q

blood has low partial pressure of oxygen and a high partial pressure of

A

CO2- NO ENERGY REQUIERD

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23
Q

in high altitude can

A

breathe more rapidly to avoid hypoxia, hemoglobin would decrease CO2 contcentration in the environment by decreasing the unloading of oxygen into the tissues- can make more RBC to increase oxygen (vascularization)

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24
Q

capillaries contract

A

less blood can pass through them. conserving thermal energy

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25
Q

immune in lungs

A

nasal cavity (vibrissae), macrophages (engulf and digest pantogens), IgA antibodies, mast cells, lysozyme- attack bacteria

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26
Q

bicarb buffer system

A

CO2 + H20 = H2CO3= H+ + HCO3-

body wants a pH of 7.35-7.45

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27
Q

when the pH is lower

A

hydrogen ion is higher, academia, increase respiratory rate, also increase in CO2 (but increasing breathing will blow off more CO2)

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28
Q

review RV and TLC

A

PLS

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29
Q

allergic reactions

A

mast cells (has to do with antibodies)

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30
Q

the information received from the dendrites is transmitted through teh ell body before it reaches the

A

axon hillock- integrates the incoming signals and transmit them to action potentials for the axon

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31
Q

myelin sheath

A

maintains electrical signal within one neuron and increases speed of conduction

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32
Q

oliogodenrocutes

A

myelin in CNS

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33
Q

Schwann cells

A

myelin in PNS

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34
Q

exposed areas of axon between myelin sheaths

A

nodes of ranvier (when it hops from node to node- salutary conduction)

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35
Q

glial cells/neuroglia

A

supporting role cells in nervous system

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36
Q

astrocute

A

nourish neurons adn form the BBB which control transmission of solutes from the blood into the nervous tissue

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37
Q

endymal cells

A

line the ventricles of the brain and produce cebrospinal fluid, which support the brain and serves as a shock absorber

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38
Q

microglia

A

phagocytic cells that ingest and break down waste products and pathogens in CNS

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39
Q

postsynaptic neuron may receive information from several different presyantic neurons, some are inhibitory adn some excitatory

A

additive effect of many signals- summation

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40
Q

temporal summation

A

many signals are integrated during a short period of time. ex a number of small excitatory signals at the same moment will bring it to threshold

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41
Q

spatial summation

A

advice effects are based on the number and location of the incoming signals. directly on the soma will cause more hyperpol or depol

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42
Q

resting

A

potassium is inside and sodium is outside

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43
Q

when membrane potential reaches +35

A

sodium channels are inactivated (top of depol to resting again). are closed before teh cell reaches threshold, and open during threshold to +35.

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44
Q

absolute refractory period

A

no amount of stimulation can cause another AP to ocurduring depol

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45
Q

relative refractory period

A

greater than normal stimulation to cause an AP because membrane is more negative in repo

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46
Q

AP traveling down axon and imitate NT release

A

impulse propgation

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47
Q

increased length of the axon

A

higher resistance and slower conditoin

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48
Q

greater cross sectional area

A

faster propagation due to deceased resistance (key over length of axon)

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49
Q

increase frequency of firing

A

not strength of AP (al the same no matter the stimulus)

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50
Q

sensory neurons

A

afferent neurons- transmit sensory rec to spinal cord sn dbrain

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51
Q

motor neurons

A

efferent - trsansmi motor information from the brain to the spinal cord to muscles and glands.

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52
Q

interneurons

A

most numerous and located in teh brain adn spinal cord and linked to reflexive behavior

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53
Q

spinal cord

A

cerical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral, protected yb teh vertebral column
white matter on outside of cord, grey is within iy

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54
Q

sensory neurons bring information to the

A

peripherally and enter on the dorsal side of the spinal cord, motor neurons hit the spinal cord ventrally and on the side closet to the front of the body

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55
Q

how many spinal nerves

A

31

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56
Q

how many cranial nerves

A

12

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57
Q

somatic NS

A

sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints and muscles

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58
Q

ANS

A

regulates heart rate, respiration, digestion and gland secretion- involtaty muscles associated with may internal organs and glands
controls body temperature
preganglionic nebros and postganglionic neuron- neurons to transit message sto the spinal cord

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59
Q

reflexies

A

interneurons in the spinal cord can send motor signals instead of waiting for the brain to

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60
Q

monosynaptic reflex arx

A

a single synapse between the sensory neuron that receives the stimulus and the motor neuron that responds to it.
knee jerk reflex- protection

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61
Q

polysyantic reflex arc

A

one interferon between the sensory adn motor

withdrawal relfex- like when stepping on a nail- both need to withdraw and maintain balance so two different action

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62
Q

nerves may carry more than one type of information (sensory or motor)

A

tracts can only carry one type of information- collection of neurons

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63
Q

NT used in ganglia of both sympathand para

A

ACh

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64
Q

dorsal root ganglion

A

contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons only. loss of sensation If cut

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65
Q

catalysts

A

do not impact the thermodynamics of a reaction (delta H) or the equlilbrium position (constant). instead, they help the reaction proceed at a much faster rate through lowering teh activation energy, increasing rate of reaction,

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66
Q

catalysts are seen in both reactants and products

A

true

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67
Q

catalysts are pH and temperature sentizie

A

optimal at certain ranges

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68
Q

enzyme specificity

A

a given enzyme will only catalyze a single reaction with specific substrates

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69
Q

oxidoreductase

A

catalyze oxidation reduction reactions- transfer of electrons between biological molecules
often use a cofactor like NAD+ or NADP+
electron donor- reductant and electron acceptor is oxidant.

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70
Q

OILRIG

A

oxidation is losing electrons, reduction is gaining electrons

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71
Q

transferases

A

catalyze the movement of a functional group from one molecule to another
moving amino groups create different molecules
kinases!!- transfer phosphate groups, from ATP, to another mc

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72
Q

hydrolases

A

catalyze teh breaking of a compound into 2 molecules using the addition of water.
phosphatase- clears the phosphate group from another molecule
also peptidases, nucleases, lipase- break down proteins, NA and lipids

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73
Q

lyases

A

catalyze the cleave of a single molecule into 2 products. do not need water as a substrate and not oxidation reduction reactions. can also catalyze the reverse (2 molecules into a single molecule)

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74
Q

isomerases

A

catalyze the rearrangement of bonds within a molecule - can be oxioreductases, transferases or lyases

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75
Q

ligases

A

catalyze the addition or synthesis reactions between large similar molecules - NA repair and synthesis. often needs ATP. smaller molecule synthesis are generally accomplished through lyases.

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76
Q

endergonic reaction

A

requires energy input (G>0), take energy in as they proceed

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77
Q

exergonic

A

energy is given off (G<0), release egerngy out as they proceed. sponteous

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78
Q

enzymes do not alter the overall free energy change for the reaction or the equilibrium of a reaction

A

instead they alter the rate (kinetics) at which the reaction occurs. how quickly reaction can get to equiilbiurm, but no equilibrium itself.

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79
Q

catalysts lower activation energy

A

make it easier for the sublate to reach transition atto.

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80
Q

THE FORMATION OF THE enzyme substrate complex in the active site I the key catalytic activity of the enzyme

A

reduces AE

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81
Q

active site

A

location within the enzyme where the vibrate is held during a chemical reaction

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82
Q

lock and key

A

enzymes active sitr (lock) is already in the appropriate conformation for the substrate (key) to bind.

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83
Q

induced fit model

A

more accepted than lock and key. both the substrate and active site changes in conformation. sub induces change in enzyme. interaction requires energy so endergonic. when releases, exergonic, no energy required. the shape of the active site becomes truly complementary only after the substrate begins binding to the enzyme

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84
Q

cofactors and coenzymes

A

small molecule that bind to teh active site of an enzyme and participate in the catalysis of the reaction, carrying charge through ionization, protonation or deprotonation.

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85
Q

enzymes with co factors

A

haloenzymes

necessary for enzymes function: prosthetic groups

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86
Q

enzymes without co factors

A

apoenzymes

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87
Q

saturation

A

reaches a maximum - all active sites are occupied and b max is reached (working as fast as it can). only way to increase v max is to increase enzyme concentration (to handle the increase in substrate levels)

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88
Q

Michaelis mention equation

A

describes how the rate of the reaction (v) depends on teh concentration of both the enzyme and substrate to form product.

E + S= ES = E + P

1st = : k1- can also ES dissociate back into E + S (k-1)
2nd =: k cat

also

v = v max S/ Km + S
when reaction rate is equal to half of v max, Km= S

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89
Q

Km

A

substrate concentration at whi half of the enzymes active sites are full - Michralis constant
can be a measure of affinity
higher kM= lower affinity for its substrate because it requires a higher substrate concentration to be half saturated

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90
Q

v max

A

represents max enzyme velocity and is measured in moles of enzymes per second.

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91
Q

kcat

A

measures the number of substrate molecules turned over, or converted to products per enzyme molecule per seconds

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92
Q

a large k cat (high turneover) or a small Km (high substrate affinity)

A

will result in a higher catalytic efficiency, which indicate a more efficient enzume

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93
Q

lineweaever Burk plotdd

A

x interecept: -1/Km

y intercept: 1/vmax

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94
Q

cooperatively

A

many subunits adn active sites
think of it like a party- the more people come, the more the atmosphere becomes relaxed and appealing, as the party dies down, more people are encouraged to leave so the hosts can clean up.
sigmoidal curve
substate binding happens more quickly as more active sites are occupied (in contrast to as suvrate binding decreases more binding from happening- saturation)

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95
Q

hills coeffeiecnet

A

greater than 1= positive cooperative binding , after 1 ligand bound, the affinity of the enzyme for further ligands increases

less than 1, negatively cooperative binding- after one ligand is bound, the affinity of the enzyme for further ligands decreases

=1, te enzyme does not exhibit cooperative binding

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96
Q

enzymes are specific during

A

temperature, pH (especially at high temperatures = enzymes fail), salinity

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97
Q

reversible inhibiation

A

competition, noncomp , mixed and uncomp

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98
Q

comp inihibtion

A

occupancy of the active sites . substrates cannot access enzymes binding sites if there is an inibbitro in the wy,

can be overcome by adding more substrates so that the substrate to inhibitor ratio is higher, more likely to bind substrate instead of inhibitor
does not alter v max, but increases Km (sub needs to be higher to reach half of the v max)

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99
Q

noncomp ini=hibition

A

inhibitors bind to allergic sites on the active sites- which induce a change in enzyme conformation. cannot be overcame by adding more sublate, decreases v max (less available enzyme to interact but does not affect Km (any copies of the enzyme that are still active maintain the same affinity for their substate)

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100
Q

mixed inhibition

A

inhibitor can bind to either the enzyme or the enzyme sub complex but with diff affinity
bind to allergic

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101
Q

uncomp inhibitor

A

bind only to the enzyme substrate complex and locks the substrate to the enzyme, preventing th release. increase affinity for the enzyme and substrate
bind at allosteric site
lower Km adn Vmax

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102
Q

irreversible inhibition

A

not easily overcome or reversed

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103
Q

allosteric enzyms

A

many binding sites

regular the availability of the active site and the active site

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104
Q

enzymes in human body work best at what temp

A

37 degrees C

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105
Q

enzymes speciicity

A

determined by teh 3D active site shape

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106
Q

perioxiomses

A

contain hydrogen periods

breakdown long chain FA via beta oxidation

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107
Q

microfilaments

A

actin with ATP and myosin to help in muscle contraction
protect the cell
play a role in cytokinesis with teh cleavage dirrpw

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108
Q

microtubuiles

A

tubular proteins
provide pathways which motor proteins like kinesis and dyne carry vesicles
cilia and flagella
centrioles in centriomes do the mitotic spindle

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109
Q

intermediate filmaents

A

cell to cell adhesion or maintenance of overall integrity of cell skelton
keratin, desmin, lamins

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110
Q

binary fission

A

asexual reproduction seen with prok

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111
Q

epithelial tissue

A

lining

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112
Q

connecie tissue

A

bone cartilage, tendons, blood to form ECF

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113
Q

facultative anaroebes

A

can use O2 if present, or if not thats ok too

bacteria

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114
Q

plasmids

A

carry genes that help with antitbioic resistance

also carry virulence facet, increase pathogenicity

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115
Q

bacteria genetic recombination

A

transofmrtion, conjugation and transfuction

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116
Q

transformation

A

integration of foreign genetic material into host genome

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117
Q

conjugation

A 
mating 
two cells from a conjugation bridge that transfers genetic material 
sex pili make the bridge `
donor male and recipient female 
must have sex factors, f factor
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118
Q

transfuction

A

requires a vector- virus that carries genetic material from 1 bacterium to another

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119
Q

single stranded viral RNA may be positive or negative sense

A 
positive= genome may be directly translated to functional proteins by ribosomes of the hot cell
negative= RNA acts as a template for synthesis of a completmenatyr stanrf, which is then used to make the proteins
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120
Q

lytic cycle

A

involves the reproduction of viruses using a host cell to manufacture more viruses; the viruses then burst out of the cell.

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121
Q

lyosegenic cycle

A

nvolves the incorporation of the viral genome into the host cell genome, infecting it from within.

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122
Q

interphase

A

G1, S, G2

longest part of the cell cycle

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123
Q

cells that dont divide spend their time in

A

G0

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124
Q

euchchromatin

A

less condensed form- DNA must be available for RNA polymerase so that genes can be transcribed.

heterochromatin - condensed and cannot be transcribed

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125
Q

G1

A

cells create organelles and protein production (mito, rib, ER) while also increasing their size

restriction point- before entering S phase - must contain propercomlment of DNA and pass the checkpoint

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126
Q

S stae

A

replicate genetic material so that each daughter-in-law cell will ave identical copies. each chromosome ill have two identical chromatids that are bound together by a centromere
46 chrom, 92 chromatids/
twice as much DNA as cells In G1

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127
Q

G2

A

quality control checkpoint

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128
Q

Mitosis

A

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

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129
Q

p53

A

repairs DNA between G1 and S checkpoiint

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130
Q

prophase

A

condensation of the chromatin into chromosomes

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131
Q

metaphase

A

along chromatomses at teh mataphase/equatorial plate

centrioles on opposite ends of the cell and kinetochore fibers interact with fibers of spindle

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132
Q

anaphase

A

centromeres split so that each chromatid has its own distinct centromere, and sister chromatids seperate/

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133
Q

telophase

A

reverse of prophase- spindle disappears, chrom uncoiled cytokinesis occurs- sprat cytoplasms

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134
Q

meiosis 1 involves

A

homologous chromosomes - generating haploid daughter cells

23 homologous pairs of chrom - one from each parents.

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135
Q

prophase 1 in meoisis

A

homologous chromsomes come together and intertwine - syanpsis and crossing overing occurs

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136
Q

males are

A

hemizygous- 1 copy of the Z chrom

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137
Q

cells of leydig secrete

A

testosterone

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138
Q

sperm is produced in that

A

seminiferous tulles and the intersistutal cells of Leydig

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139
Q

sperm is nourished by

A

Sertoli cells

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140
Q

spermatogenssi

A

formation of haploid sperm through meiosis

occurs in semniferous tubes

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141
Q

ovaries

A

produce estrogen and progesterone

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142
Q

one egg per month is ovulated

A

yes

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143
Q

oogenesis

A

all oogonia have already undergone DNA replication adn are primary oocytes by birth.

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144
Q

GnRH

A

triggers anterior pit to trigger FSH and LH which triggers the production of other sex hormones

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145
Q

follicular phase

A

menstrution begins. uterine lining sheds. GnrH increases, FSH and LH increase therefore, ovarian follicles are secreted, produce estrogen, negative feedback on GNRH LH adn FSH

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146
Q

ovulation

A

estrogen also positive feedbacks (and negative) LH which indices ovulation- releases ovum from ovary in o the abdominal cavity

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147
Q

luteal phase

A

LH raises the ruptured follicle to form corpus leutuem which secretes progesterone. maintains uterine lining for implantation

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148
Q

menstruction

A

without implantation, ,levels decline and uterine is shed

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149
Q

development of mature sperm

A

spermatogonia, 1 spermocyte, 2 spermocyte, speramtid, spermatozoan

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150
Q

spindle attaches to kinetochores

A

prophase

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151
Q

from the time of birth until ovulation, egg cells are in prophase of meiosis 1 (primary oocyte)

A

at ovulation, egg has completed meiosis 1 and is in metaphase 2 (secondary oocyte), once sperm penetrates the outer layer f the secondary oocyte and finishes meiosis 2

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152
Q

estrogen

A

for endometrium development

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153
Q

abdominal cavity is before the

A

fallipoian tube (and where the egg is released at

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154
Q

nondisjucntion

A

incorrect segregation of homolog chrom during anaphase 1 or of sister chromatids during anaphase 2

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155
Q

ectoderm

A

integument- epidermis, hair, nails, epithelial of nose, mouth, lens of eye, nervous system

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156
Q

endoderm

A

epithelial lining o fthh digestive and respiratory tratcs, liver, pancreas, bladder

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157
Q

mesoderm

A

musckosletal system, circulatory system, excretory, gonads, adrenal core

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158
Q

the influence of specific group of cells on teh differentiation of another group of cells

A

induction

eyes are formed between teh induction of the brain adn teh ectoderm

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159
Q

senesence

A

biological aging

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160
Q

the tissues a particular stem cell can differentiate into are determined by its

A

potenncy

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161
Q

greatest potency

A

totient cells- any cell type

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162
Q

pluripotent

A

three germ cell layers. can differentiate into any cell type besides for the placental structures

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163
Q

multipotent

A

multiple cells

like in the blood (RBC, WBC, platelets), but not skin cells, neurons, etc.

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164
Q

embryo

A

morula –> bastula–> gastrula

solid ball of cells, hollow center, three germ layers form

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165
Q

sodium is actively transported out of the nephron into teh PCT adn DCT (against gradient)

A

in the inner medulla, thin ascending limb, sodium passes down its concentration gradient

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166
Q

thick ascending limb

A

has many mitochondria for ATP for active transport of NA and CL- out of the filtrate

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167
Q

lowest solute concentration

A

cortex- where PCT and some DCT are found

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168
Q

passage of blood through the kidneys

A

renal artery–> afferent artery–> glomerulus–> efferent articlole–> vasa recta (around the nephnr tubular) –> renal vein

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169
Q

ADH and aldosterone increases water reabsorption in the kidney

A

yes

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170
Q

ADH works by

A

increasing the permeability of the collecting duct to wate
peptide hormone. vasopressin
alcohol adn caffeine inhibit ADH
allows more water to be reabsorbed at collecting ducts (inhibits waTer elimination)
inserts aquaporins into collecting ducts, decreases volume of urine

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171
Q

aldosrerone

A

stimulates reabsorption of sodium from teh DCT and collecting ducts .decreased blood pressure stimulates the release of renin, which cleaves angiotensin which produces aldosterone adn increase BP

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172
Q

hypothalmus

A

regulates body temperature

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173
Q

PCT absorbs

A

glucose, aa, organic molecules, 100% of nutrients, water, ions

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174
Q

DCT absorbs

A

The role of the early DCT is the absorption of ions, including sodium, chloride and calcium. It is impermeable to water.

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175
Q

excess ACH leads to

A

parasympathetic- contraction of the bladder, increased sweat glands`

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176
Q

PCT into blood

A

waste, urea, drugs

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177
Q

DCT absorbs

A

Na+- regulated by aldosterone

water

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178
Q

descending limb

A

highly permeable to water, osmosis (water flows out) because blood is more hypertonic (full of salt and solutes)

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179
Q

ascending limb

A

highly permeable to salt (not water) by ACTIVE TRANSPORT

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180
Q

endocrine signaling involves

A

the secretion of hormones into the bloodstream. hormones than travel to distant targets where they bind to receptors and induce a change in gene expression or cell function

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181
Q

peptide hormones are composed of

A

aa and derived from precursor proteins that are cleaved during post translational modification
polar- can’t pass through pm
trigger second messengers when bind to extra cell rec
rapid onset but short lived effects
travel freely in blood stream (without carrier) because water soluable

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182
Q

steroid hormones

A

derived from chol
minimally polar and can pass through the pm
bind and promote change in cystolic and intranuclear receptor- Horm rec complex binds to DNA, alters transcription of genes
steroid have slow onset but long lived
lipid soluble so need a carrier when in blood

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183
Q

amino acid derived hrmones

A

modified AA
share with steroid adn peptide hormones
epi,nor

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184
Q

direct hormones

A

secreted adn act directly on target tissue
insulin released on pancreas causes increased uptake of glucose by muscles
prolactin (stimulates milk production in mammary glands), endorphins (decrease perception of pain), growth hormone,
non endocrine gland

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185
Q

tropic hormones

A

intermediated needed to act to influence target tissue
GnRH stimulates LH and FSH - stimulate production of testestrone to cause direct changes in bones and hair follicles

FSH, LH, GNRH, ACTH, CRF
endocrine gland

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186
Q

hypothalamus

A 
controls pit through release of paracrine H
secretes GnRH (which secretes LH, FSH and GH), TRH, CRG
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187
Q

posterior pit

A

release oxytocin (uterine contractions during labor) and ADH (increase water reabsorption in collecting ducts of kidney) (synthesized by hypothalamus

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188
Q

thyroid

A

controller by thyroid stimulating hormone from ant pit

energy production more efficient b T3 and T4

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189
Q

parathyroid glands

A

raises blood calcium levels (opposite of calcitonin) and increases vitamin D for calcium absorption in the gut
increased CA reabsorption int eh kidneys, increased bone reabsorption and increased absorption of ca in the gut

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190
Q

adrenal glands

A

located on top of the kidneys

secretes corticosteroids- glucosi, miniera and sex hormones

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191
Q

glucocorticoid steroids

A

regulate glucose levels and protein metabolism
cortisol and cortisone
increase glucneogensis adn decrease protein synthesis
increases blood sugar when stressed

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192
Q

mineral corticoids

A

aldosterone! increasing sodium reabsorption in the DCT and collecting duct
also increasing reabsorption of potassium and hydrogen ions
renin angiotensin pathway

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193
Q

cortical sex hromones

A

androgens and estrogens.

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194
Q

adrenal medulla

A

epi, nor (catecholamines)
fight or flight responses
increase glucose, heart rate, dilate bronchi, vasodilation of BV

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195
Q

pancreas

A

exocrine and endocrine (digestion and insulin, glucagon, somatostatin)

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196
Q

glucagon

A

increases glucose production by triggering glucogenogenssi and breakdown of protein adn fat

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197
Q

insulin

A

take ip glucose and store as glycogen

B cells

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198
Q

somatostatin

A

inhibitor of glucose and glucagon
always inhibitory
leading to decreased insulin and glucagon

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199
Q

pineal gland releases

A

melatonin which helps regulate circadian rhythms

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200
Q

kidneys secrete

A

erthyripoeitn- stimulate bone marrow to product RBC in response to low O2 levels

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201
Q

acromegaly

A

enlargement of small bones in exteemedities and facial structures in adults with too much GH

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202
Q

cretinism

A

poor neurological and physical development because iodine defificny - swelling of thyroid gland

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203
Q

dopamine secretion blocks

A

prolactin release

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204
Q

accessory organs of digestion

A

salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder

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205
Q

enteric nervous sytem

A

controls peristalsis

unregulated by parasympth and down regulated in sympath

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206
Q

ADH and vasopressin promote

A

thrist

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207
Q

glucagon adn gherkin promot

A

hunger

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208
Q

leptin and cholecytoskinin

A

promote fullness

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209
Q

stomach has 4 parts

A

fundus, body, antrum, plyourous

folds called rugae

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210
Q

chief cells secrete

A

pepsinogen, which is a protease that activated by teh acidic nature of the stomach

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211
Q

mucous cells produce

A

bicarb rich mucus to protect the stomach

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212
Q

parietal cells

A

secrete HCL and intrinsic factor, which is needed for vitamin B12 absorption

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213
Q

G cells secrete

A

gastrin, peptide hormone that increases HCL secretion adn gastric motility

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214
Q

food pass into the duodenum through the

A

pyloric sphinctor

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215
Q

small intestine

A

duodena, jejunum and ileum

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216
Q

duodenum

A

chemical digestion
breakdown maltose, lactose into monosaccharides
peptidases present

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217
Q

secretin

A

stimulates release of pancreatic juices into the dueonum and slows motility

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218
Q

cholesystokin

A

stimulates bile release from gallbladder , release of pancreatic juices, and fullnesses

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219
Q

acing cells

A

in the pancreas, produce pancreatic juices that contain bicarb, amylase and peptidases and lipase

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220
Q

liver syntheizes

A

bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and secreted into the duenodum directly

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221
Q

bile function

A

emuslfies fat- making them soluable and increasing their surface area

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222
Q

bile is. made up of

A

bile salts, pigments (bilirubin) and chol

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223
Q

bilirubin

A

is the breakdown of HB

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224
Q

liver

A

produces urea, detoxifies, produces bile, albumin and clotting factors

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225
Q

gallbladder stores and concentrates bile

A

yes

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226
Q

jejunum and ileum

A

absorption

lined with vili and lacteal (vessel of lympth system)

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227
Q

lacteal

A

fat soluable compounds- fats, cool, vitamins, enter

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228
Q

water soluable compounds for digestion

A

monosaccarides, aa, water, small aa, water enter cap bed

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229
Q

large intestine

A

absorbs water and salts, forms feces

cecum, cold, rectum

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230
Q

lipase

A

chemically digests fats

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231
Q

dueonum pH

A

Ph is 8.5

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232
Q

carboxypeptidase

A

breaks down proteins in small intestine

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233
Q

skeletal muscle

A

involved support and movement, propulsion of blood into the venous system and thermoregulation. striated and voluntary, polynucleated

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234
Q

slow twitch fibers

A

oxidative phosphorlation red fibers

high myoglobin and mito

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235
Q

fast twitch fibers

A

anaerobic metabolism white fibers

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236
Q

smooth muscle

A

respiratory, reproduce, CV and digestive system. nonstarter and autonomic control, uninucleated.

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237
Q

cardiac muscle

A

contractile tissue of the heart. striated and autonomic and uninucleated. shows myogenic (contraction without neural input- same as smooth muscle)
cells are connected with intercalated discs and gap junctions (flow of ions between adjacent cells)

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238
Q

sacromeres

A

basic contractile unit of started muscle

myosin (thick) and actin (thin)

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239
Q

troponin and tropomyosin

A

regulate actin myosin interaction and found on actin.

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240
Q

M line (in sarcomere)

A

M line: located in the middle of the sarcomere

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241
Q

I band

A

thin filaments

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242
Q

H zone

A

thick filaments

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243
Q

A band

A

thick filaments only- constant during contraction

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244
Q

sarcomeres that attach end to end to become

A

myofibrils

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245
Q

myocyte

A

muscle cell or fiber

contains many myofibrils

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246
Q

myofibrils are surrounded by

A

sacroplasmic reticiulum, a ca containing modififed ER and the cell membrane of a myocyte (sacrolemma)

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247
Q

T tubules

A

connected to teh sarcolemma and allow action potentials to reach all parts of the muscle

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248
Q

muscle contraction begins at teh

A

neuromuscular junction where motor neuron releases ACh that binds to receptors on the sarcolemma, causing depol. depol spreads to t tubules from sacromella and triggers release of CA ions. CA binds to troponin, causing a shift in tropomyosin and exposure of the myosin binding site on teh actin thin filament. shortening of teh sarcomere occurs as the myosin head binds to the exposed sites on actin, forming cross bridges and pulling teh actin filament along the thick filament which results in a contraction. aka sliding filament model

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249
Q

muscele relaxes when

A

ACH is degraded by acetylcholinesterase, terminating teh signal and allowing calcium to be brought back into the SR. ATP binds to myosin head and allows it to release from actin.

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250
Q

muscle cells exhibit an all or none response called a

A

simple twitch

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251
Q

frequency summation

A

addition of many simple twitch before the muscle has the opportunity to fully relax

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252
Q

tetanus

A

simple switches that occur so frequently as to not let the muscle relax at all- more prolonged and stronger contraction

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253
Q

muscle cells have addiotnal energy reserves to reduce oxygen debt and prevent fatigue

A

creatine phosphate (transfer phosphate group to ADP to form ATP) and myoglobin (heme protein that is a oxygen reserve)

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254
Q

internal and extneral skeltons

A

endoskeletons and exoskeltons

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255
Q

axial Skelton

A

consists of structures in the mid line (skull, rib cage, vertebral column)

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256
Q

appendicular skelton

A

bones in the limbs, pectoral girdle, pelvis

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257
Q

bone is derived

A

mesoderm

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258
Q

compact bones

A

provides strength and is dense

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259
Q

spongy or cancellous bones

A

has lattice like structures consisting of bony spicules known as trabeculae and caivities filled with bone marrow

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260
Q

long bone break down

A

diaphyses that form metaphases and end in epiphyses (growth plate)

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261
Q

bone is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called

A

periosteum

site of attachment of bones to muscle tissues. can differentiate into osteoblasts

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262
Q

bones are attached to muscles by tendons

A

and to each other by ligaments

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263
Q

osteoblasts

A

build bnoe

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264
Q

osteoclasts

A

reabsorb bone

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265
Q

parathyroid hormone

A

increases resorption of bone, increasing CA and phosphate in blood

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266
Q

vitamin D

A

ncreases resorption of bone, leading to increased turnover and production of stronger bone

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267
Q

Calcitonin

A

increases bone formation and decreases CA concentration in the blood

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268
Q

cartildge

A

firm elastic material secreted by chondrocytes
in areas with more flexibility or cushioning
avascular and not innervated

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269
Q

immovable joints

A

fused together to form sutures

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270
Q

movable joints

A

strengthen by ligaments and contain synovial fluid (lubticating motion)

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271
Q

muscles that serve opposite function (one contracts and the other releases)

A

antagonistic pairs

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272
Q

articular surfaces of the bone are covered with

A

smooth articular cartilage- stops bones from contacting one another

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273
Q

yellow marrow

A

adipose tissue

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274
Q

endochondral ossification

A

replcemnet of cartridge with bones and occurs in long ones

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275
Q

intramembraneous ossifcation

A

formation of bone from undifferentiated connective tissue cells and occurs in skull

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276
Q

heart is composed of

A

cardiac muscle and has the pulmonary and systematic cirulation

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277
Q

the atria are separated from teh ventricles by teh

A

atrioventricular valce (tricupsid on teh R, bicuspid on the L)

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278
Q

the ventricles are separated from teh vasculature from

A

semilunar valves (pulmonary on R, aortic on L)

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279
Q

the pathway of blood

A

RA (tricuspid)– RV (pulmonary valve)– pulmonary artery–lungs–pulmon veins–left atrium(mitral valve) –LV (aortic valve)–aorta–arteries–aterioles–capillaries–venules-beins-vena cava-RA

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280
Q

Left side of the heart has more muscle than the right side because of systematic circulation has a much higher resistance and pressure

A

yes

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281
Q

electrical conduction

A

SA node (sinoatrial node) and then goes to the AV node (atrioventricular) – bundle of HIS—purkinje fibers

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282
Q

systole

A

AV valves are closed during ventricular contaction

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283
Q

diastole

A

hert is relaxed and semilunar valves are closed

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284
Q

CO

A

HR x SV

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285
Q

arties

A

elastic, highly muscular, thick
recoil and helps propel blood forward.
away from heart

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286
Q

capillaries

A

one cell thick walls so RBC travel single file. site for gas and solute exchange

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287
Q

eins

A

inelastic, thin that transport blood to the heart.. no recoil but can stretch . valves to maintain a one way flow

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288
Q

portal system

A

blood passes through two capillary beds in a series

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289
Q

heaptic portal system

A

blood travels from the gut capillary beds to teh liver via the hepatic portal vein

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290
Q

hypophyseal portal system

A

blood travels from the cap bed in the hypothalamus to the cap bed in the anterior pit

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291
Q

renal portal system

A

blood travels from the glomerulus to the vasa recta through the efferent artierole

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292
Q

blood

A

is composed of cells and plasma, aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts and repistaory gases, hormones, blood proteins

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293
Q

erythrocytes RBC

A 
lack mitocoonia, nucleus and organelles 
have hemoglobin (carries O2)
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294
Q

hematocrit

A

% of blood composed of RBC

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295
Q

leukocytes WBC

A

formed in bone marrow

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296
Q

thromobocytes

A

platelets are cell fragments required from coagulation

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297
Q

blood antigens

A

A B O and rH factors

298
Q

Blood pressure

A

force per unit area that is exerted on teh walls of blood vessel by blood - must be higher enough to overcame the resistance
maintained baroreceptors and chemoreceptors

299
Q

gas and solute exchange occurs at the level of the capillaries and relies on the existence of concentration gradients to

A

faciliate diffusion, leaky

300
Q

hydrostatic pressure

A

pressure of the fluid within the blood vessel

forces fluid out to the arteriolar end of cap bed

301
Q

osmotic pressure

A

sucking pressure that draws water to solutes

due to proteins

302
Q

oxygen to hemoglobin has cooperative binding

A

more the better

303
Q

high partial pressure of O2 in teh

A

lungs, resulting in blowing of oxygen onto hemoglobin

304
Q

low partial pressure of oxygen in the

A

tissues, resulting in unloading of o2 with hemoglobin.

305
Q

carbon dioxide is carried throughout the blood in the forms of

A

carbonic acid,`bicarb and hydrogen ions because polar and highly soluable

306
Q

low pH, high temp, high CO2

A

decreased affinity for O2

307
Q

clots can be broken down by

A

plasmin

308
Q

most resistance to blood flo

A

artieroles

309
Q

all the alleles in. given population

A

gene pool

310
Q

mutations

A

changes in DNA sequences

311
Q

point mutations

A

substituting one nucleotide fro another

312
Q

frameshift mutations

A

moving teh three letters transcriptional reading frame

313
Q

silent mutation

A

no effect on protein

314
Q

missence mutation

A

subsitution of 1 aa for another

315
Q

nonsense mutation

A

subsutiton of a stop codon for an aa

316
Q

insertions and deletions result in shifts of

A

reading frame, leading to downstream changes I aa

317
Q

inversion mutations

A

when segment of DNA is reversed

318
Q

insertion mutation

A

when segment of DNA is moved from 1 chrom to another

319
Q

transmembrane mutation

A

occur when a segment of DNA is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chrom

320
Q

genetic leakeage

A

flow of genes between species through hybrid offspring

321
Q

genetic drift

A

composition of gene pool changes as a result of chance

322
Q

founder effect

A

bottlenecks that isolators a small population, leading to inbreeding and a increased prevalence of homozygous genotypes

323
Q

recombination frequency

A

likelihood of 2 alleles being separated during crossover in meiossi

324
Q

natural selection

A

chance variations exist between individuals and that advantageous variations- those that increase an individuals fitness for survival or adaption to the eni=vironment have the most reproductive successes

325
Q

modern synthesis model

A

mutation adn recombination are mechanisms of variation

differential reproduction to be the mechanism of reproductive success1

326
Q

inculsive fitness

A

organisms succes based on number of soffpsrng, supporting offspring, ability of offspring to support others, survival of offspring/genes in later generations

327
Q

punctuated equbilibrium

A

evolution is a slow process with rapid burst of evolutionary activity

328
Q

stabilizing selection

A

phenotypes are in narrow range, not extremes

329
Q

directional selection

A

average phenotype to one extreme

330
Q

disruptive selection

A

moves population toward 2 different phenotypes at teh extremes and can lead to speciation

331
Q

adaptive radition

A

rapid emergency of multiple species from a common ancestor, each of which occupies its own ecological niche

332
Q

species

A

group of organisms able to breed and form fertile offspring

333
Q

divergent evolution

A

2 species share a common ancestor become more different

334
Q

parallel evolution

A

occurs when 2 species share a common ancestor and evolve in similar ways due to analogous selection pressures

335
Q

convergent evolution

A

occurs when 2 species not sharing a recent ancestor evolve to become more similar due to analogous selection predssures

336
Q

hardy weinberg

A

q^2 + 2pq +p^2

p +q=1

337
Q

innate immunity

A

composed of defenses that are always active, but cannot target a specific invader adn cannot maintain immunologic memory- nonspecific

338
Q

adaptive immunity

A

composed of defenses that take time to activate but target a specific invader adn can mtainin immunologic memory= specific immunity

339
Q

immune cells come from the

A

bone marrow

340
Q

spleen adn lymph nodes

A

sites where immune responses can be mounted and B cells are activated

341
Q

skin

A

secretes antimicrobial compounds like defensins

342
Q

mucus

A

traps pathogens in resp system

343
Q

tears and saliva contain lyzosoyme

A

antibacterial compound

344
Q

stomach has acid that kills pathogens

A

in teh gut

345
Q

interferons

A

help prevent viral replication and dispersion by cells

346
Q

macrophages

A

ingest pathogens and present them on MHC molecules- secrete cytokines too

347
Q

dendritic cells

A

antigen presenting cells on teh skin

348
Q

NK cells

A

attack cells without MHC molecules

349
Q

neutrophils

A

ingest. aceroa

350
Q

esoinophils

A

allergic reaction and parasite infections- release histamine

351
Q

basophils

A

allergic reactions

352
Q

humoral immunity

A

antibody production by plasma cells, or activated B cells

an produce antibodies against a specific antigen.

353
Q

antibidoes

A

2 heavy chains 2 light chains. target antigen

can mark pathogens for ddestruction or cause aggregation of complexes

354
Q

memory b cells

A

send exposure to a pathogen and can launch a big immune response

355
Q

cell mediated immunity

A

functions of T cells
kill viruses
protects the body against intracellular pathogens. Recognises pathogens in circulating in blood or lymph.
nonspecific

356
Q

passive immunity

A

transfer of antibidoes to an individual

357
Q

structural proteins

A

cytoskeleton. scaffolding system or web for the cell, proteins help actor cytoskeleton to cell membrane. in addition to intracellular support, extracellular matrices composed of protein like tendons, ligaments, cartilage- made up of collagen, elastin, keratin, actin and tubular.

358
Q

collagen

A

trihelical fiber and makes up connective tissue extracellular matrix. providing strength and flexbilbilty

359
Q

elastin

A

onnective tissue extracellular matrix. primary role is to stretch and recoil

360
Q

keratins

A

intermediate filament proteins in epithelial cells. contrubet to the mechanical integrity of teh cell and also functions as regaultroy proteins. makes up hair and nails

361
Q

actin

A

microfilaments adn the thin filaments in myofibrils. most abundant protein in eukaryote cells. polar (positive and negative side) so motor proteins can travel along actin filament in a 1 way street

362
Q

tubulin

A

microtubules. provide structure, chrom seperation in mitosis, transport with kinesis and dyne
has polarity

363
Q

motor proteins

A

like in cilia and flagella.

enzymatic activity with teh use of ATPase

364
Q

myosin

A

primary motor protein that interacts with actin
thick filament
movement of myosin neck vital for power stroke or sarcomere cntraction

365
Q

kinesins and dyneins

A

motor proteins associated with microtubules
kinesin - play a role in aligning chrom during metaphase
dyneins- cilia and flagella
kin bring vesicles toward the positive end of microtubule, dyn to negative end- vesicle transport

366
Q

binding proteins

A

bind a specific substrate, either to sequester it in the body or hold its concentration at steady state

367
Q

cell adhesion molecules

A

CAM- allow cells to bind to other cells or surfaces

368
Q

cadherins

A

CA dependent glycoproteins that hold similar cells together

369
Q

integrins

A

2 mem spanning chains and permit cells to adhere to proteins in ec matrix. some signaling capabillties

370
Q

selectins

A

allow cells to adhere to carbs on the surfaces of other cells and used in immune system

371
Q

antibodies

A

or immunoglobulins (Ig) are used by teh immune system to target a specific antigen, which ma be a protein on the surface of a pathogen or toxin

contain a constant and variable region (responsible for antigen binding)

disulfide linkages and non covalent interactions hold together chains

372
Q

ion channels

A

regulating ion flow into or out of cell
ungated - always open
voltage gated- membrane potential
LG - open with substate binding

373
Q

enzyme linked receptors

A

participate in cell signaling through ec ligand binding and initiation of second messenger cascades

374
Q

`GPCR

A

membrane bound protein associated with trimetric G protein
second messenger systems
lignad binds to G protein
GDP replace with GTP , alpha subunit dissociates from beta and gamma
alpha subunit alters the activity o fAC or PKC
GTP is dephosphorlyated to GDP and alpha rebinds to other subunits

375
Q

electrophoresis

A

uses a gel matrix to observe the migration of proteins in response to an electric field

376
Q

native PAGE

A

maintains the proteins shape but results are difficult to compare because mass to charge rations differ for each protein
analyze proteins in native shape

377
Q

SDS page

A

denatures the protein and mask the native charge so comparison of size is moreaccurate, but functional protein cannot be recaptured from teh gel has SDS- disrupts all non covalent interactions

378
Q

isoelectric focusing

A

separates proteins by their isoelectric point (PI) the protein migrates toward an electrode until it reaches a region of the gel where pH=PI of the protein
positive protein= go to anode = acidic, basic gel = negative cathode)

379
Q

isoelectric point

A

the pH at which teh protein or aa is electrically neutral, with an equal number of positive and negative charges
zwitterion, amino group is protonated and carbonyl group is deprotinated and side chain neutral

380
Q

chromatogaphy

A

homogenized protein mixture to be fractionated through a porous matrix
the more similar the compound is to its surroundings (polarity, charge) the more it will stick to and move more slowly through its surroundings

place on stationary phase/absorpent
elute by running through mobile phase

381
Q

amount of time spent in stationary phase

A

retention time

382
Q

column chromatogrphy

A

silica beads as absorbent and gravity moves solvent and compounds down the column
size and polarity have a role in determining how fast a cmpd moves through the polar silica
less polar= faster it elutes (shorter retention time)

383
Q

ion exchange chromatography

A

beads in column are coated with charged substances, so bin to compd with opposite charge

384
Q

size exlcusion chrom

A

beads contain tiny pores of varying sizes. all small comoounds to enter and slow them done
large cant enter so move and travel faster

385
Q

affinity chrom

A

column with high affinity for the protein
receptor that bidns to protein or specific antibody
preotin of interest is retained in column

386
Q

protein structure can be attained by

A

X ray CHROM and NMR spec

387
Q

X ray chrom

A

measured electron density

388
Q

Edman degradation

A

primary structure of protein, sequential digestion of the protein with specific cleavage enzymes
50-70 aa

389
Q

UV spec

A

concentration of protein

390
Q

SDS

A

solubilizes proteins to give them uniformly negative charges so seperation is based on size

391
Q

ion chanelles do not use

A

second messenger systems and therefor hormones unlikely to bind

392
Q

calcium and magnesium

A

bind to proteins

393
Q

big proteins

A

chromatography over elctrophoressi

394
Q

monosacracrises with 3C, 4C, 5C,6C

A

trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses

395
Q

carbs with aldehyde group

A

aldoses

396
Q

carbs with ketone group

A

ketoses

397
Q

6C aldehyde carb

A

aldohexose

398
Q

5C ketone carb

A

ketopentose

399
Q

in a carb

A

carbon C most oxidized

400
Q

in a carb with kettle the carbonyl C is alway

A

C2

401
Q

sugars with the ghihest numbered chiral C with teh OH Group on the R

A

d sugars

402
Q

sugars with the ghihest numbered chiral C with teh OH Group on the L

A

L sugars

403
Q

diasteromers

A

non superimposable configurations with similar connectivity

different at least one chiral C

404
Q

epimers

A

differ at exactly 1 chiral C

405
Q

anomers

A

different the at anomeric C

406
Q

lipids re insolubale in water and soluable in

A

nonpolar solventrs

407
Q

phopholipids

A

amphiphatic and form bilayer of biological membranes
have hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
head is attached by phosphodiester linkage

408
Q

saturation of FA tails determines the

A

fluidity of the membrane

409
Q

saturated FA are less

A

fluid
only single bonds
butter
greater LDF and stable

410
Q

unsaturated FA

A

one or more double bonds
kinks in Fa making it difficult to stack and solidify
oil

411
Q

glcerophospholipids

A

glycerol backbone by ester linkages to two FA by phosphodiester linkage to a highly polar head group
type of phosopholipid

412
Q

sphingolipids

A 
sphingosine backbone (not glycerol) with FA 
type of phospholipid
413
Q

waxes

A

long chain FA esterfiifed to long chains of alcohol

protection against evaporation and paraites

414
Q

terpenes

A

steroid precursors made from isoprene (5C)

1 temperance = 2 isoprenes

415
Q

steroids

A

three cyclohexane rings and one cyclopentance ring

4 RINGS

416
Q

cholesterol

A

important for membrane fluidity and stability steroid

417
Q

prostaglandins

A

autocrine and paracrine signaling molecules that regulate CAMP levels
powerful effects on SM contraction, body temp
20 C mcare unsaturated carboxylic acids with.1 5C ring

418
Q

vitamins

A

consumed in diet

water and lipid soluable categories

419
Q

vitamin A

A

carotene

unsaturated hydrocarbon important in vision and growth and immune

420
Q

vitamin D

A

cholecalciferol

increases calcium and phosphate uptake to promote bone formation

421
Q

vitamin E

A

antioxidants
aromatic ring destroys free radicals
cancer and aging

422
Q

vitamin K

A

postranslational modifications to form prothrombin, clothing factor in blood

423
Q

triglycerides

A

preferred method of storing E for long term use- one glycol attached to 3 FA by ester bonds

hydrophobic

424
Q

the carbon atoms in lipids are more reduce adn so

A

twice as much E than carbs during oxidation

425
Q

adipocutd

A

store triglycerides

426
Q

soaps act as surfactants, forming miscelles

A

miscelles can dissolve a lipid soluable molecule in its FA core adn washes away water

427
Q

in eukaryote, DNA is wound around

A

histone proteins (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4) to form a nucleoside

428
Q

DNA and histones make up

A

chromatin

429
Q

heterochromatin

A

dense, transcriptionally silent DNA

dark under microscope

430
Q

euchormatin

A

less dense, transcriptionally active

light under microscope

431
Q

telomeres

A

ends of chrom

high GC content to prevent unraveling of DNA

432
Q

centromeres

A

hold ester chromatids together until anaphase in mitosis

433
Q

GC

A

strongest bond

434
Q

chargaffs rule

A

purines and pyrimidines are equal in number in a DNA molecule

435
Q

helicase

A

unwinds DNA

436
Q

single stranded DNA binding proteins

A

prevent speared strands from reassociation and protect against nucleases which digest DNA

437
Q

supercoiling

A

wrapping of DNA onto itself. topoisomerase relieves teh strain by negative supercoil
imagine a twisted telephone wire not good

438
Q

replication process is

A

semi conservative because one parental strand is retinaed in each of the to resulting identical double strands DNA molecules

439
Q

DNA polymerase

A

responsbile for reading teh DNA template and synthesizing new strand
synthesize 5-3

440
Q

RNA primer in DNA replication

A

start replication in the 5-3 direction on each strand

441
Q

DNA ligase

A

seals ends of Ozaki fragments together

442
Q

mutated genes that cause cancer

A

oncogenes

443
Q

mismatch repair

A

detect and remove errors introduced during replication that were missed in teh S phase . in G2 phase

444
Q

restriction enzymes

A

recognize specific double stranded DNA sequences

445
Q

recombinant DNA

A

allows DNA fragments from any source to be multiplied by either gene clomimg or polymerase chain reactions

PALINDROMIC

446
Q

hydridzayion

A

joining of completmenatry base pair sequences

447
Q

PCR

A

produce millions of copies of a DNA sequence without amplifying teh DNA In bacteria
primers

448
Q

gel electrophoresis

A

seperate macromolecules by size and charge

all DNA is negatively charged becasue phosphate groups so migrate to anode

449
Q

southern blot

A

detect the presence and quantity of various DNA strands with probes that bind to single stranded DNA
probes are labeled with indicator to see a specific stran

450
Q

promotor is not usually in a

A

intron

451
Q

splice acceptor site

A

In the splicing of RNA, the site at the 3’ end of an intron.

452
Q

adhesion proteins

A

adhesion proteins act in binding with other cells or with the extracellular matrix, not protein folding.

453
Q

chaperone proteins

A

which facilitates proper protein folding and inhibits the formation of nonfunctional protein aggregates.

454
Q

clatherin

A

clathrin functions in formation of vesicles for intracellar trafficking, not in protein folding.

455
Q

signal sequence

A

This portion of the mRNA is located in the 5′ region and will signal to the ribosome that translation needs to be continued in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

A sequence of amino acid residues bound at the amino terminus of a nascent protein during protein translation, which when recognized by the signal recognition particle results in the transport of the nascent protein to the organelle of destination

456
Q

nuclear localization signal`

A

he nuclear localization signal is a sequence that tags the protein for it to be transported into the nucleus.

457
Q

chemiosmosis

A

Chemiosmosis is the only step of cellular respiration where NAD+ is neither reduced to form NADH, nor is NADH oxidized to form NAD+.

458
Q

mysosin binds actin after troponin binds to which ion?

A

Ca- Ca2+ ions play a critical role in myosin-actin binding during skeletal muscle contraction. Ca2+ binds to troponin and allows tropomyosin to move, freeing the site of interaction between actin and myosin.

459
Q

steroids have

A

A steroid is composed of a 6-6-6-5 fused ring assembly, which is a total of 4 fused rings.

460
Q

When concentrated urine is being produced, in which of the following regions of the kidney will the glomerular filtrate reach its highest concentration?

A

The collecting duct is the final structure in which water reabsorption occurs, which concentrates filtrate. The medullary portion of the collecting duct is the last portion of the tubules where reabsorption can occur. In the portion of the tubule that follows, there will be no more reabsorption. Thus, the medullary portion of the collecting duct contains the most concentrated glomerular filtrate that will correspond to the urine.

461
Q

Na K aTPASE activity cannot be measured by

A

Free energy does not correlate with enzyme activity because it is NOT a measure of reaction rate/activity.

462
Q

to restore resting membrane

A

upon ATP hydrolysis, three Na+ are transported outside the cell and two K+ are transported inside the cell against their concentration gradient.

463
Q

transcription factors act by

A

p65 and cRel are transcription factors and regulate the expression of other genes by binding to the promoter or the enhancer of the gene located on the DNA.

464
Q

P-gp is found in cholesterol rich domains

A

pointing to lipid rafts, which are a part of the pm

465
Q

microtubue function

A

microtubules bind to chromosomes at the level of the kinetochore and regulate their migration toward the opposite poles of the cell during anaphase.

466
Q

filtrate moves into the glomerulus from

A

passive flow due to pressure difference

467
Q

coutnercurrent exchange system

A

The mechanism’s effect is dependent on the two fluids flowing in opposite directions, and having a concentration gradient between them.

468
Q

enzymes alter

A

local pH, substrate shape, adn can co-localizing substrate but cannot alter the substrate primary structure.

469
Q

if somethign is an amino acid

A

it can form peptide bonds

470
Q

enzymes are

A

CATLYSTSES

471
Q

cells that are in. interpahse are

A

not dividing. Pericytes and other supportive cells were growth arrested, thus they were not dividing. Cells that are in interphase are not actively dividing.

472
Q

fibroblasts

A

fiboblast is the most common type of cell found in connective tissue. Fibroblasts secrete collagen proteins that are used to maintain a structural framework for many tissues. They also play an important role in healing wounds

Fibroblasts are supportive cells that are not in direct contact with the circulating blood, thus they are not likely to play a role in gas exchange between blood and the surrounding tissues.

473
Q

smooth muscle cells

A

Smooth-muscle cells are not in direct contact with blood, thus they are least likely to play a critical role in gas exchange between blood and the surrounding tissues

.

474
Q

endothelial cells

A

Endothelial cells are the cells that are in direct contact with blood and the surrounding matrix so these are the cells that play the most important role in gas exchange.

regulates exchanges between the bloodstream and the surrounding tissues. Signals from endothelial cells organize the growth and development of connective tissue cells that form the surrounding layers of the blood-vessel wall.

475
Q

pericytes

A

Pericytes are cells present at intervals along the walls of capillaries (and post-capillary venules). In the CNS, they are important for blood vessel formation, maintenance of the blood–brain barrier, regulation of immune cell entry to the central nervous system (CNS) and control of brain blood flow.

located between endothelial cells and matrix (no contact with blood_

476
Q

bacterial DNA is

A

Bacterial DNA is double stranded like the eukaryotic DNA.

477
Q

the way nucleotides bond

A

Nucleotides are linked to one another by phosphodiester bonds between the sugar base of one nucleotide (thymine) and the phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide (adenine) in a way that the 5′ end bears a phosphate, and the 3′ end a hydroxyl group.

478
Q

negative feedback loop between pit and hypothal

A

Release of ACTH from the pituitary is regulated by negative feedback. In normal conditions, high levels of circulating glucose and other stressors activate the production of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus. CRH will stimulate the pituitary gland to release ACTH which will trigger cortisol release from the adrenal cortex. Finally, the presence of high levels of circulating cortisol will inhibit CRH secretion (negative feedback) thus closing the loop. In Addison’s disease, the circulating levels of ACTH will be higher than normal because the factor that triggers the inhibition of CRH production, high cortisol levels, is absent or low.

479
Q

too high glucocortiocoids

A

igh levels of circulating glucocorticoids will increase protein degradation in various tissues, muscles included. A direct consequence of protein degradation in muscles is muscle weakness.

480
Q

insulin

A

aids glucose uptake by decreasing the cellular concentration of glucose.

481
Q

The item indicates that working skeletal muscles use glucose in an insulin-independent manner.

A

Thus, exercise will be able to reduce the levels of glucose in both types of diabetes.

482
Q

insulin cleavage (protein)

A

he endomembrane system is the portion of the cells that is in charge of modifying proteins that will be secreted. Thus, it is most likely that insulin cleavage will occur in the endomembrane system.

483
Q

diabetets in essence

A

diabetes affected individuals will use proteins and lipids as a source of glucose, .

484
Q

RNA polymerase locates genes by searching for

A

DNA promotor regions

485
Q

in transcribing mRNA

A

RNA polymerase 2 binds to TATA box promotor region

486
Q

post translational modifications

A

7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap on 5’ end

487
Q

poly A tail to

A

3’ end

488
Q

splicing

A

introns are removed in lariat structure and exons are pushed together

alternative splicing increases variability of gene products

489
Q

plasma membrane

A

semi permeable phospholipid bilayer

chooses which particles can enter and leave the cell

fat soluable can cross easily, larger water soluable cannot

protect from exterior environment \communicaiton and transport and receptors

490
Q

cel walls of plants and bacteria have

A

high glycoprotein and carb coats

491
Q

phospholipids

A

make up the cell membrane

492
Q

lipid rafts

A

collections of similar lipids with or without associated proteins that serve as attachment points for other biomolecules- role sin signaling

493
Q

flippases

A

specific membrane proteins that maintain the bidirectional transport for lipids between the layers of the phospholipid bilayer

494
Q

protein and carbs also may move within the membrane

A

but are slowed because of their large size

495
Q

triacylgylercides adn free FA

A

phospholipid precursers and found in low levels in the membrane

496
Q

glyercophospholipds

A

replace one FA with a phosphate group in a triglyceride and you have a polar head! Can assemble into micelles or lipless due to hydrophobic interactions

primary component of cell membrane

497
Q

steroid moleucles adn c cholesterol

A

fluidity

498
Q

waxes

A

membrane stabilty and structural integrity

499
Q

FA

A

carboxylic acids that contain a hydrocarbon chain and terminal carboxyl group

500
Q

trigylcerdes

A

storage lipid involved with metabolism

3 FA chains and esterfifed glycerol molecule

501
Q

unsaturated

A

healthier fats
one or more double bonds and exist in liquid form
fluiditiy

502
Q

saturated FA

A

no kinks because no double bonds adn so decrease membrane fluidity
less healthy

503
Q

sphingolipids

A

hydrophilic region and 2 FA derived hydrophobic tails like phospholipids

504
Q

choelterol

A

synthesis of steroids
occupies space between phospholpids, increasing fluidity at lower temperatures and at higher temperatures, decreases fluidity by limiting movement of the membrane

505
Q

waxes

A 
hydrophobic to the max 
long chain FA and alcohol 
high melting point
stabilty adn regidity
waterproof
506
Q

transmembrane proteins

A

through teh bilayer completely

507
Q

embedded proteins

A

only one side of the ecm

508
Q

transmembrane and embedeed proteins are considered

A

integral proteins

509
Q

gap junctions

A

rapid exchange of ions and other small molecules between adjacent cells

510
Q

tight junctions

A

prevent paracellular transport, but can do intracellular transport

511
Q

desmoses and hemidesmosomes

A

anchor layers of epithelial tissue together

512
Q

cell adhesion molecules

A

proteins that allow cells to recognize each other andcontribute to proper cell differentiation between cells commmunciation

513
Q

osmotic pressure

A

colligative property, pressure applied to a pure solvent to prevent osmosis and is used to express the concentration of the solution

“sucking” pressure

514
Q

passive transport

A

does not require energy because the molecule is moving down its concentration gradient from an area of higher concentration to an area with lower concentration

515
Q

simple diffusion

A

does not require a transporter. small non polar molecules passively move from high to low

516
Q

membrane receptor is most likely to be

A

a transmembrane protein with catalytic activity

517
Q

inner mitochondrial membrane

A

lacks cholesterol which is unique

impeccable

518
Q

out mitochonridral membrane is

A

permeabe

519
Q

Nerst equation

A

E= 61.5/z log (ion out/ion in)

z= charge of ion

520
Q

chemical digestion of lipids occur in

A

small intestine, and facility by bile, pancreatic lipase, colipiase, cholesterol esterase

521
Q

digested lipids form

A

micelles for absorption

522
Q

short FA acids are absorbed across the intesnties

A

into the blood

523
Q

long chain FA are absorbed as micelles and assembled into

A

chyomicrons for release int eh lymphatic system

524
Q

emusilficaion

A

mixing og 2 immisible liuids
fat and water
create a surface area of the lipid for greater enzymatic interaction and processing

525
Q

bile

A

is secreted by teh liver adn stored in the gallbladder

526
Q

lipase

A

hydrolyze the liquid components of FA

527
Q

micelles

A

clusters of amphipathic Lipids that are soluable in the lumen of the stomach

528
Q

although human adipose tissue does not respond directly to glucagon

A

a fall in insulin levels activates HSL that hydrolyze triglycerides, yielding FA and glycerol
release glycerol Is transported to teh liver for glycolysis or gluconeogenesis

ADIPOSE TISSUE

529
Q

LPL

A

metabolism of chylomicrons and VLDL

release free FA from triglycerides in LIPOPROTEINS

530
Q

chylomicrons

A

transport machinery for dietary triacylglycerol molecules and transported via the lymphatic system

531
Q

VLDL

A

transports newly synthesized triacylglycerides mc from the liver to peripheral tissues int eh blood stream

532
Q

LDL

A

cholesteral transport for tissues

533
Q

HDL

A

cholesterol recovery- cleaning up excess cholesterol from blood vessels for excretion

534
Q

lipoproteins

A

lipids can travel in blood
can be LDL, chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, HDL

all base don density

535
Q

apoplipoproteins

A

receptor molecules involved with sigalling

536
Q

cholesteral may be obtained through diet

A

or through de novo by acetyl COA and ATP in the liver

537
Q

FA ARE synheized in the cytoplasm from actyl COA

A

transported out of the mitochondria

involves activation, bond formation, reduction, dehydration and reduction again

done in the liver

538
Q

FA oxidation occurs in teh

A

mitochondria

539
Q

Beta oxidation

A

uses cycles of oxidation, hydration, oxidation and cleavage

reverses the process of FA synthesis by oxidizing and releasing (rather than reducing and linking ) acetyl COA

each step reduces NAD+ and FAD to produce NADH and FADH2. these are oxidized in teh ETC and produce ATP
acetyl COA enters the citric acid cycle, stimulates glucneogenesis since it cannot be glucose, by activating pyruvate

540
Q

following a large meal

A

acetyl COA accumulates in mitochondria and that partners with oxaloacetate at the start of citric acid cycle.

541
Q

catabolism

A

breakdown

542
Q

liver does

A

glucose to FA to TAG to VLDL to lumpathatic system

543
Q

ketone bodies

A

form during long starvation states due to excess acetyl COA in the liver

544
Q

ketolysis

A

regenerates acetyl COA for use as an energy supply in tissue

breakdown of keton ebodies to acetyl COA for energy

545
Q

beta oxidation in essence is when we oxidized fat to produce

A

ATP

546
Q

everytime we go through a round to beta oxidation, we lose how may C

A

2, and create 1 NADH, 1 FADH2 and 1 acetyl COA molecule which are used to fuel the ETC to create ATP
and acetyl COD goes to Krebs cycle (which then goes to ETC)

FA broken down (catabolized) to form acetyl COA, 2 less C FA and NADH and FADH2

547
Q

changes in enthalpy in a closed biological system are equal to changes in

A

internal energy, which is equal to heat exchange within the enviorment

548
Q

no work is performed in a closed biological system because

A

P and V remain constant (and so enthalpy and heat exchange (Q) is equal)

549
Q

entrophy

A

measure of energy dispersion

550
Q

physiological conditins are less than

A

standard conditiosn

551
Q

internal energy

A

sum of all teh different interactions between adn within all atoms in a system- vibration, rotation, motion

552
Q

the role of ATP

A

energy molecule
high energy phsophate bonds that are stabilized upon hydrolysis by resonance, ionization or loss of charge repulsion

can be a phosphate donor (phosphoric group transfers)

553
Q

ATP proides about

A

30 kg/mol of energy

554
Q

ATP hydrolysis occurs in teh context of

A

coupled reactions

movement of NA and K across electrochemical gradient requires energy which is harnessed by hydrolysis of ATP

555
Q

many oxidation reduction reactions involve electron carriers to

A

trnsport high energy electrons

556
Q

electron carriers

A

can be soluable or membrane bound
NADH, FADH2
used to ETC

557
Q

flavorpoteins

A

electron carriers

558
Q

equilibrium is an undesired state for most biochemical reactions because

A

organisms need to harness free energy to survive

559
Q

anabolism

A

synthesis of biochemical moleculed

560
Q

major targets of insulin

A

liver, muscle and adipose tissue

561
Q

insulin promotes

A

glycogen synthesis in the liver and muscle and then after filled, converts excess glucose to FA and trgylcerices in adipose tissue

562
Q

in the postabsorptive/fasting state

A

glycogen degradation and the release of glucose into the blood are stimulated and so is gluconeogeneiss (making glucose)

FA and AA are exerted by teh decrease in insulin to help with gluconeogeneies

563
Q

in the prolonged fasting state

A

gluconeogensis is relied on as glycogen storages are depleted
lipolysis can occur, resulting in a lot of acetyl COA that is used to make ketone bodies which lead ot muscles using FA for energy

564
Q

water soluable peptide hormone

A

insulin

565
Q

insulin

A

secrete day beta cells int eh pancreas
uptake and stage of glucose
facilitated transport mechanisms uptake glucose in muscle and adipose tisue

566
Q

glucose uptake is not affected by insulin

A

kidney, nervous, RBC

567
Q

metabolism

A

s the chemical reactions in the body’s cells that change food into energy.

568
Q

insulin (as well as carb metabolism) as influences

A

lipid adn protein metabolism by increasing aa uptake and therefore levels of protein synthesis adn decreasing breakdown

also increases trigylceral synthesis in adipose cells and acetyl COA

decreases ketone body formation

569
Q

glucagon

A

peptide hormone secreted by alpha cells in pancreas
increases liver glycogenolysis
increases blood glucose in respond to low glucose and high aa level

570
Q

glycogenesis

A

is the process of storing excess glucose for use by the body at a later time.

571
Q

Glycogenolysis o

A

ccurs when the body, which prefers glucose as an energy source, needs energy. The glycogen previously stored by the liver is broken down to glucose and dispersed throughout the body.

572
Q

glucocorticooids

A

from the adrenal core are resposible for fight or flith

glucose rapidly mobilized from liver to fuel activity like contracting muscled 
cortisol excreted (steroid)
573
Q

cortisol

A

promotes the mobilization of energy stores though teh degradation and increased delivery of aa and increased lipolysis
elevates blood glucose levels, increases glucose (esp for brain so may decrease glucose for muscle sand fat)

574
Q

catecholamines

A

secreted by the adnreal medulla and include epi and fro

increase activity of liver and muscle glycogenolysis (decrease in glycogen) and increase adrenaline rush

575
Q

thyroid hormones

A

kept relatively contant with regards to metabolism.

576
Q

ketones are synthesized with

A

excess FA are oxidized

577
Q

liver roles

A

maintain constant level of blood glucose adn synthesized ketones

578
Q

after a meal, glucose concentrations in blood is elevated, the liver…

A

exytracts the excess glucose and uses it to replenish its glycogen stores.
any glucose remaining in teh liver is then converted to acetyl COA and used for FA synthesis

579
Q

increase in insulin after a meal stimulates

A

glycogen and FA synthesis in teh liver

580
Q

in a well fed state, liver derives most of the energy from oxidation of excess aa

A

between meals and prolonged tasing glucose is released intone hblood

581
Q

equation

A

delta G = delta G circle + RT lnQ

Q- products over reactants

582
Q

the ability to exist in both a oxidized and reduced state is

A

electron carriers

583
Q

prolonged fasting leads the brain to relay on

A

ketone bodies

584
Q

active skeltal muscles uses

A

creatine phosphate and glycogen to maintain energy, as resting skeletal muscle uses insulin for glucose uptake

585
Q

leptin

A

decrease appetite by inhibiting the production of orexin (alertness)

586
Q

energy

A

systems ability to do work

587
Q

kinetic energy

A

energy of motion
K=1/2 mv^2
in joules

kg x m^2/s^2

588
Q

if the speed doubles

A

KE will quandrule assuming the mass is constant

589
Q

kg to g:

A

1 kg: 1000 g

590
Q

potential energy

A

energy that is associated with a given objects position in space
potential to do work

591
Q

gravitational PE

A

depends on an objects position with respect to some level

PE=mgh
g- acceraltion due to graviy (10)

592
Q

elasti cpotential nergy

A

U=1/2kx^2

k- spring constant (stiffness)
x- displacement

593
Q

total mechanical energy

A

PE + KE

594
Q

firts law of thermodynamics

A

conservation of mechanical energy- energy is not created or destroyed but transferred

595
Q

if the force is conservative it

A

any round trip path
any path between 2 points

if the change in energy aroudn any round trip is 0 or if the energy is equal when changed

596
Q

conservative forces

A

delta E= delt PE + delta KE = 0

597
Q

nonconservative forces

A

friction, reistsnace than change in total mechanical= delta PE + delta KE = WORK

598
Q

work =

A

PE + KE

599
Q

work define

A

Joules

process by whcih energy is transferred from one system to another

600
Q

energy is transfered through work when something exerts force on or against something as demonstrated by

A

work= F x d cos theta

d- displacement

601
Q

when gas expands, volume increases by b force

A

and work is posiive

602
Q

work can be found by looking at the PV graph

A

under the curve

603
Q

if volume is contant

A

no work is done

but if pressure is consatntm work is still done

604
Q

work equals

A

Pressure x delta volume

605
Q

power

A

rate at which energy is transferred from one system to anther

P= W/t= delta E/t

Watt (J/s)

606
Q

work

A

Kf-Ki (delta Ke)

607
Q

Force equals

A

mg

608
Q

F=ma

A

yes

609
Q

he epithelial cells that line the gastrointestinal tract are typically highly proliferative

A

yes

610
Q

phosphodiester bonds

A

phosphodiester bonds link the 3ʹ carbon atom of one deoxyribose and the 5ʹ carbon atom of another deoxyribose within the DNA molecules.

611
Q

purine

A

2 rings!

612
Q

pyridimidine

A

1 ring

613
Q

Cysteine has a

A

sulhydryl group

S-H

614
Q

example of isoelectric point

A

Wnt proteins are a family of secretory proteins with isoelectric points around 9, implying that they are positively charged at physiological pH.

615
Q

Ubiquitination

A

targets a protein for degradation by a proteasome.

616
Q

transmembrane domains and residue state

A

transmembrane domains and, thus, cross the phospholipid bilayer. As a result, these domains are most likely to have a high proportion of hydrophobic residues. Hydrophobic residues are nonpolar.

617
Q

western blot

A

A western blot is a laboratory method used to detect specific protein molecules from among a mixture of proteins.

posttranslational modification of proteins such as histone acetylation is analyzed by Western blotting

618
Q

southern blot

A

Southern blotting is done to detect DNA sequences in NA sequences

619
Q

northern blot

A

Nrthern blotting is performed to detect RNA sequence in NA

620
Q

digestion pathway

A

lbood from the small intestine is transported first to the liver, which regulates nutrient distribution and removes toxins from the blood. I

621
Q

fusion of the viral membrane with the host cell membrane.

A

endocytotsis as mediated by endosomes

622
Q

proteases

A

Proteases function to digest proteins into smaller fragments.

623
Q

in a protein reading frame

A

amino terminus to the carboxyl terminal (where nucloetides are added)

624
Q

Under anaerobic conditions,

A

2 moles of ATP are produced from each mole of glucose

625
Q

per ATP molecule there is

A

Since there are 6 × 1023 molecules per mole,

626
Q

brain is part of the central nervous system, which is derived from

A

ectoderm

627
Q

lysosomes

A

membrane-bound organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes activated by a low pH. These enzymes are capable of degrading many kinds of biomolecules.

628
Q

microtubules that originate in and radiate from the:

A

centrosomes

629
Q

kinetochores

A

ehere sindles attach to in cell division

630
Q

T-cell receptors on these cells bind specifically to:

A

viral antigens presented on the surface of virus-infected cells.

631
Q

Where in the human male reproductive system do the gametes become motile and capable of fertilization?

A

epiydmiysis

632
Q

educing agent would eliminate any disulfide bridges

A

so think about cys and met

break down bigger mc into smaller ones

633
Q

E = hf =

A

= hc/λ

634
Q

kcat equation

A

kcat = Vmax/[E] (enzyme concentration is E)

v maz is rate

635
Q

Absorption of ultraviolet light by organic molecules always results in what process?

A

.Excitation of bound electrons

636
Q

column chrom what elutes first

A

NONPOLAR ELUTES FIRST

n-Pentane → 2-butanone → n-butanol → propanoic acid

637
Q

longer wavelengths, and hence lower energy, th

A

yes

638
Q

when kinases transfer phosphate in ATP they use the

A

gamma subunit

639
Q

WHEN YOU ARE PHOSPHORLYATED YOU HAVE A

A

NGETAIVE CHARGE

640
Q

curves have a sigmoidal shape, which is indicative of

A

cooperative processes

641
Q

a higher melting temperature is indicative of a more stable protein,

A

s more energy is needed to unfold the protein.

642
Q

G–C base pairs form stronger π-stacking interactions than A–T base pairs, thereby creating the most thermal stability.

A

e increased melting temperature of DNA rich in GC content

643
Q

storage lipids?

A

think trigylcerides

B.Three fatty acids ester-linked to a single glycerol

644
Q

cathode

A

reduced and negative

645
Q

anode

A

oxidied and positive

646
Q

Heisenberg’s principle.

A

uncertanity

the position and the velocity of an object cannot both be measured exactly, at the same time, even in theory.

647
Q

catalusts increase the

A

amount of product produced per unit time.

648
Q

equilibrium constant for the reaction is very large (much greater than 1).

A

This necessarily means that ΔG° is negative and the reaction is spontaneou

649
Q

ionization enrgy increases as you move

A

from L to R

650
Q

mass percent

A

The essential formula for mass percent of a compound is mass percent = (mass of chemical÷total mass of compound) x 100. Y

651
Q

henderson hassbualch

A

pH = pKa + log([base]/[acid])

652
Q

battery power resistant circuit

A

hemical energy of the battery elements is used as electrical energy to set the charge carriers in motion through the resistor, where they experience drag from the crystal lattice of the resistive conductor and dissipate their energy as heat from the resistor.

653
Q

secondary proteins tructure

A

secondary structure is represented by repeated patterns of hydrogen bonds between the backbone amide protons and carbonyl oxygen atoms

654
Q

work is not dependent on

A

speed

655
Q

ow-twitch fibers are adapted for aerobic exercise which suggests they are likely, relative to fast-twitch fibers, to have increased

A

capillary density, larger numbers of mitochondria, and higher levels of oxygen-binding proteins.

656
Q

nadotropin-releasing hormone regulates

A

pituitary gonadotropin (luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone) secretion. Thus, if gonadotropin-releasing hormone is not able to regulate luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone secretion from the pituitary, the reproductive axis will remain quiescent

657
Q

helicase

A

catalyzes the unwinding and separation of the parental DNA strands, so that each can be replicated.

658
Q

Ligase

A

DNA ligase I connects the Okazaki fragments,

659
Q

primases

A

is an enzyme that synthesizes short RNA sequences called primers. … Primase functions by synthesizing short RNA sequences that are complementary to a single-stranded piece of DNA, which serves as its template.

660
Q

Topoisomerase

A

the unwinding or rewinding DNA

emoves positive and negative supercoils formed during the unwinding process of DNA

661
Q

proteases

A

inolve hydrolyases, or breaking of bigger molecules into small ermolcules through emitting water

662
Q

apoptotic signaling correlates to

A

growth arrest

663
Q

cancer occurs not because “cell death” bu becauses

A

we cant KILL cells (apoptosis)

664
Q

eurkayroteic genes do not have

A

operons!! !only prok

665
Q

prok operon gene

A

a single mRNA transcribed from a single promoter sequence upstream of the operon.

666
Q

The Na+K+ ATPase is an example of P

A

PRIMARy active transport

which is USIN ATP

667
Q

secondary active transport

A

uses other energy molecules to transport substances across a memraben

668
Q

Na+K+ ATPase transports

A

3 Na+ outside of the cell and 2 K+ inside of the cell per molecule of ATP hydrolyzed.

669
Q

tumor cells are

A

somatic (cant be passed down)

670
Q

acetyltion

A

Adding an acetyl group to the tail (acetylation) neutralises the charge, making DNA less tightly coiled and increasing transcription

671
Q

methylation

A

dding a methyl group to the tail (methylation) maintains the positive charge, making DNA more coiled and reducing transcription.

672
Q

prolonged starvation means the formation of

A

ketone bodies, which by by sustained fatty acid oxidation.

673
Q

The adrenal medulla is part of which branch(es) of the peripheral nervous system?

A

sympathetic

674
Q

Allosteric inhibition of an enzyme involves which of the following events?

A

Binding of an inhibitor to a site other than the substrate binding site

675
Q

the Krebs cycle produces both ATP and NADH but not NAD+. ATP directly supplies energy for many cellular processes, such as muscle contraction, and NADH, which is used in the electron transport chain.

A

energy for Krebs and ETC

676
Q

1/8

A

.12

677
Q

pressure adn concenrtation

A

so you know that pressure and volume are inversely proportion (as P increases, V decreases). SO look at PV=NRT, as pressure increases, n (concentration) will increase, so they are directly proprtional and therefore you cannot use the equation P1M1=P2M2 because thats nto an eqution because that says they are inverses which they are not. SO you must look at the difference between pressures and then correlate that to the difference in concenration

678
Q

hypoxia on energy metabolism

A

n hypoxia, glycolysis is activated while mitochondrial functions (oxidative phosphorylation) are attenuated. This metabolic reprogramming leads to increased concentration of NADH inside the cell. For glycolysis to proceed, NADH must be converted back to NAD+ through lactic fermentation.

679
Q

phosphoglucose isomerase

A

involved in glycolysis

680
Q

restriction enzymes

A

CCCGGG within the HIF binding sequence is palindromic. Therefore, only a restriction enzyme that recognizes a four-base sequence or a six-base sequence can recognize this sequence within the HIF binding sequence.

681
Q

succinate dehydrogenase

A

which is also known as Complex II, in the electron transport chain.

682
Q

IMPRINTED GENes

A

Imprinted genes are genes whose expression is determined by the parent that contributed them.

683
Q

how RNA viruses replicate themsleves

A

xRNA viruses require a type of transcriptase (reverse transcriptase) to replicate themselves.

684
Q

optimum temp for enzymes

A

the optimum temperature for enzymes is normally 37 °C

685
Q

Mucous secretions in the respiratory tract inhibit microbial infections.

A

epithelial cells

686
Q

vili in SI

A

Villi atrophy results in a decrease in the surface area of the small intestine, leading to a decrease in nutrient absorption.

687
Q

reduced plasma proteins in the blood

A

large plasma proteins, such as albumin, in the blood increase the osmotic pressure of the blood, which in turn, increases the return of fluid to the circulatory system from the body tissues. Therefore, with malnutrition, the osmotic pressure of the blood would decrease resulting in an increase of fluid in the body tissues.

688
Q

ujabsobred fats affect in teh Large intensine

A

excess of unabsorbed fats in the intestines inhibits normal water and electrolyte absorption, resulting in increased osmotic pressure and diarrhea.

689
Q

to increase BLOOD calcium levels

A

herefore, to increase calcium levels in the blood, osteoblast activity should be decreased and osteoclast activity should be increased to release stored calcium from the bone to the bloodstream.

690
Q

one characteristic that distinguishes eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells is that eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria

A

have ribosomes, cell wall and sexual reproduction in common

691
Q

cytochrome C function

A

Cytochrome P450 acts as monooxygenases, where an oxygen atom is inserted into a substrate (the drug of interest), thereby resulting in the oxidation of the substrate.

692
Q

phsphorlyation involves removing the H of the OH in tyrosine and attaching phosphate there with the oxugen

A

During phosphorylation of tyrosine, the hydrogen atom of a hydroxyl group on the amino acid is removed, thereby allowing the remaining oxygen to nucleophilically attack the phosphorous atom of a phosphate group from a high energy carrier such as ATP.

693
Q

TF main characterisitc

A

contain a DNA binding domain.

694
Q

fatty acid oxidation takes place in

A

mitochondria

695
Q

affinity for O2 when muscles are contracting is going to decrease for hemoglobin and 02 in muscle tissue (let go of 02)

A

during prolonged execise, pH decreases because lactate acid formation. Co2 is going to go into the plasma pH and decrease pH as carbonic acid.

696
Q

Henry’s Law

A

kH relates the solubility of a gas S to the pressure of that gas Pg above the solution and is written as S = kH•P

needs partial pressure and concentration

697
Q

grehin adn obses

A

Obese individuals have more energy stores than lean individual. For this reason, the levels of ghrelin, which increases appetite, are lower in obese individuals.​

698
Q

mRNA is composed of

A

nucleotides, not amino acids!!

699
Q

gianitsm

A

gigantism does NOT mean obesity or increase in fat cells. Gigantism is due to TOO MUCH growth hormone, which causes growth of the bones and muscles, not fat cells

700
Q

protein translation

A

uring protein translation, aminoacyl transferase functions to transfer the tRNA originally bound at the A (amino acid) site to the P (peptide) site and later to the E (exit) site of the ribosome.

701
Q

exercise

A

musclee cell differentiation

702
Q

competetivion inhibitor pot

A

intersect on y axis

703
Q

RT-PCR

A

RT-PCR is a molecular technique that measures mRNA levels of specific protein.

transcriptopmal control

704
Q

southern blot

A

Southern blot is a technique that analyzes genomic DNA and cannot be used to measure the transcriptional regulation of a gene.

705
Q

quanitivative PCR

A

Quantitative PCR is a technique that measures the levels of DNA, not mRNA,

706
Q

western blot

A

Western blot is a technique that measures the translational levels of a protein, not the transcriptional regulation of a gene.

707
Q

native PAGE

A

Native PAGE is used to separate proteins based on their electrophoretic mobility, relying on length, conformation, and charge.

708
Q

gel filtation chrom

A

Gel filtration chromatography separates protein only on the basis of their size.

709
Q

ion exchange chrom

A

Ion exchange chromatography allows separation of the molecules based on their charge.

710
Q

x chrom

A

The inactivate X chromosome is one of the last chromosomes to replicate.

711
Q

more bile is released

A

the smooth muscles around the gall bladder will have to contract, and the hepatopancreatic sphincter will have to relax.

712
Q

xetra water is normally excreted through

A

skin and lungs

713
Q

higher vs. lower osmolarity

A

igher osmolality means you have more particles in your serum. Lower osmolality means the particles are more diluted.

714
Q

HIV contains reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that converts the viral genome from:

A

RNA into DNA.

715
Q

phoshoglyerol

A

he addition of this group (phosphoglycerol) adds a negative charge to pilin and thus decreases its isoelectric point.

716
Q

An amber codon is a stop codon

A

fact

717
Q

nondisjunction

A

Non-disjunction occurs when sister chromatids fail to separate during cell division.

718
Q

glycolysis

A

(Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi –> 2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + 2 H2O).

719
Q

krebs cycle

A

10 NADH , 2 FADH2 and 2 ATP

720
Q

oxidative phosphorylation

A

ETC! the synthesis of ATP by phosphorylation of ADP for which energy is obtained by electron transport and which takes place in the mitochondria during aerobic respiration.

721
Q

glycolysis occurs inthe

A

cytoplasm

722
Q

krebs cycle occurs in

A

mito matrix

723
Q

ETC occurs in

A

mitochondria

724
Q

somatic

A

not during meiossi

725
Q

S phase

A

DNA replication occurs

726
Q

lactate fermentation occurs in teh

A

cytoplasm

727
Q

ribosomal subunits of

A

40S and 60S

728
Q

during contraction

A

thick and thin filaments remaint eh same relaive size, overlappig each other

729
Q

neurlation

A

induction of the ectoderm to differentiate into the nervous system

730
Q

increasing cholesterol

A

decreases membrane fluidity (which is why lipid rafts have a high concentration of chol)

731
Q

phosphptidylcholine

A

type of phospholipids

732
Q

peptide bonds form with

A

condensation (leaving as water)

733
Q

autoimmune is not

A

inherited

734
Q

glactose only differs from glucose in 1 steroecenter

A

so they are epimers

735
Q

the binding of eukaryote RNA polymerase requires multiple TF

A

yes

736
Q

prok have transcriptiona dn translation

A

at the same time

737
Q

eukaryote have splicing

A

prok do not

738
Q

both euk and prok require DNA protein interaction for

A

RNA polymeras

739
Q

blastula

A

hollow ball with fluid center

740
Q

reverse transciption

A

done by virsues, like HIV

Marli MCAT Flashcards (8 decks)

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