New Biology Flashcards
1
Q
Nares
A
In the nose. Has vibrissae (nasal hairs) to filter air
2
Q
order of air
A
nasal, pharynx, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles
3
Q
pharyx
A
air and food. food goes to the esophagus, air goes to lungs.
4
Q
larynx
A
also called the glottis- (covered by the epiglottis) - has 2 vocal cords and to the trachea and into the bronchi
5
Q
pleurae
A
surround each lung
visceral pleura - inner
parietal pleura- outer
6
Q
interpleural space
A
contains a thin layer of fluid - lubricates the two pleura
7
Q
inhalation
A
involves external intercostal muscles, intrTHROACIC VOLUME INCREASES
8
Q
negative pressure breathign
A
air flows from high pressure to low pressure
9
Q
exhalation
A
use internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, which appose teh external and pull the rib cage down.
surfactant prevents the complete collapse of alveoli during exhalation by reducing surface tension at the alveolar surface
10
Q
total lung capacity
A
the max volume of air in the lungs when one inhales - 6 to 7 liters
11
Q
residual volume
A
the volume of air remaining in the lungs when one exhales completely
12
Q
vital capacity
A
the difference between min and max volume of air in the lungs (TLC-RV)
13
Q
Tidal volume
A
the volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath
14
Q
expiratory reserve volume
A
the volume of additional air that can ve forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation
15
Q
inspirator reserve volyme
A
the volume of additional air that can be forcible inhaled after a normal inhalation
16
Q
ventilation is controlled by the
A
medulla oblongata - ventilation center
neurons contain chemoreceptors sensitize to CO2
17
Q
CO2 rise
A
hypercarbia/hypercapnia- resp rate will also rise so more CO2 is exhaled , causing CO2 levels to fall in the blood
18
Q
hypoxia
A
low O2 conditions
19
Q
capilarries bring deoxy blood from the pulmonary arteries
A
to the lungs (from teh R ventricle)
20
Q
oxygenated blood returns to the LA of the heart via the
A
pulmonary veins
21
Q
driving force of gas exchange
A
pressure differences in gas
22
Q
blood has low partial pressure of oxygen and a high partial pressure of
A
CO2- NO ENERGY REQUIERD
23
Q
in high altitude can
A
breathe more rapidly to avoid hypoxia, hemoglobin would decrease CO2 contcentration in the environment by decreasing the unloading of oxygen into the tissues- can make more RBC to increase oxygen (vascularization)
24
Q
capillaries contract
A
less blood can pass through them. conserving thermal energy
25
immune in lungs
nasal cavity (vibrissae), macrophages (engulf and digest pantogens), IgA antibodies, mast cells, lysozyme- attack bacteria
26
bicarb buffer system
CO2 + H20 = H2CO3= H+ + HCO3-
| body wants a pH of 7.35-7.45
27
when the pH is lower
hydrogen ion is higher, academia, increase respiratory rate, also increase in CO2 (but increasing breathing will blow off more CO2)
28
review RV and TLC
PLS
29
allergic reactions
mast cells (has to do with antibodies)
30
the information received from the dendrites is transmitted through teh ell body before it reaches the
axon hillock- integrates the incoming signals and transmit them to action potentials for the axon
31
myelin sheath
maintains electrical signal within one neuron and increases speed of conduction
32
oliogodenrocutes
myelin in CNS
33
Schwann cells
myelin in PNS
34
exposed areas of axon between myelin sheaths
nodes of ranvier (when it hops from node to node- salutary conduction)
35
glial cells/neuroglia
supporting role cells in nervous system
36
astrocute
nourish neurons adn form the BBB which control transmission of solutes from the blood into the nervous tissue
37
endymal cells
line the ventricles of the brain and produce cebrospinal fluid, which support the brain and serves as a shock absorber
38
microglia
phagocytic cells that ingest and break down waste products and pathogens in CNS
39
postsynaptic neuron may receive information from several different presyantic neurons, some are inhibitory adn some excitatory
additive effect of many signals- summation
40
temporal summation
many signals are integrated during a short period of time. ex a number of small excitatory signals at the same moment will bring it to threshold
41
spatial summation
advice effects are based on the number and location of the incoming signals. directly on the soma will cause more hyperpol or depol
42
resting
potassium is inside and sodium is outside
43
when membrane potential reaches +35
sodium channels are inactivated (top of depol to resting again). are closed before teh cell reaches threshold, and open during threshold to +35.
44
absolute refractory period
no amount of stimulation can cause another AP to ocurduring depol
45
relative refractory period
greater than normal stimulation to cause an AP because membrane is more negative in repo
46
AP traveling down axon and imitate NT release
impulse propgation
47
increased length of the axon
higher resistance and slower conditoin
48
greater cross sectional area
faster propagation due to deceased resistance (key over length of axon)
49
increase frequency of firing
not strength of AP (al the same no matter the stimulus)
50
sensory neurons
afferent neurons- transmit sensory rec to spinal cord sn dbrain
51
motor neurons
efferent - trsansmi motor information from the brain to the spinal cord to muscles and glands.
52
interneurons
most numerous and located in teh brain adn spinal cord and linked to reflexive behavior
53
spinal cord
cerical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral, protected yb teh vertebral column
white matter on outside of cord, grey is within iy
54
sensory neurons bring information to the
peripherally and enter on the dorsal side of the spinal cord, motor neurons hit the spinal cord ventrally and on the side closet to the front of the body
55
how many spinal nerves
31
56
how many cranial nerves
12
57
somatic NS
sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints and muscles
58
ANS
regulates heart rate, respiration, digestion and gland secretion- involtaty muscles associated with may internal organs and glands
controls body temperature
preganglionic nebros and postganglionic neuron- neurons to transit message sto the spinal cord
59
reflexies
interneurons in the spinal cord can send motor signals instead of waiting for the brain to
60
monosynaptic reflex arx
a single synapse between the sensory neuron that receives the stimulus and the motor neuron that responds to it.
knee jerk reflex- protection
61
polysyantic reflex arc
one interferon between the sensory adn motor
| withdrawal relfex- like when stepping on a nail- both need to withdraw and maintain balance so two different action
62
nerves may carry more than one type of information (sensory or motor)
tracts can only carry one type of information- collection of neurons
63
NT used in ganglia of both sympathand para
ACh
64
dorsal root ganglion
contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons only. loss of sensation If cut
65
catalysts
do not impact the thermodynamics of a reaction (delta H) or the equlilbrium position (constant). instead, they help the reaction proceed at a much faster rate through lowering teh activation energy, increasing rate of reaction,
66
catalysts are seen in both reactants and products
true
67
catalysts are pH and temperature sentizie
optimal at certain ranges
68
enzyme specificity
a given enzyme will only catalyze a single reaction with specific substrates
69
oxidoreductase
catalyze oxidation reduction reactions- transfer of electrons between biological molecules
often use a cofactor like NAD+ or NADP+
electron donor- reductant and electron acceptor is oxidant.
70
OILRIG
oxidation is losing electrons, reduction is gaining electrons
71
transferases
catalyze the movement of a functional group from one molecule to another
moving amino groups create different molecules
kinases!!- transfer phosphate groups, from ATP, to another mc
72
hydrolases
catalyze teh breaking of a compound into 2 molecules using the addition of water.
phosphatase- clears the phosphate group from another molecule
also peptidases, nucleases, lipase- break down proteins, NA and lipids
73
lyases
catalyze the cleave of a single molecule into 2 products. do not need water as a substrate and not oxidation reduction reactions. can also catalyze the reverse (2 molecules into a single molecule)
74
isomerases
catalyze the rearrangement of bonds within a molecule - can be oxioreductases, transferases or lyases
75
ligases
catalyze the addition or synthesis reactions between large similar molecules - NA repair and synthesis. often needs ATP. smaller molecule synthesis are generally accomplished through lyases.
76
endergonic reaction
requires energy input (G>0), take energy in as they proceed
77
exergonic
energy is given off (G<0), release egerngy out as they proceed. sponteous
78
enzymes do not alter the overall free energy change for the reaction or the equilibrium of a reaction
instead they alter the rate (kinetics) at which the reaction occurs. how quickly reaction can get to equiilbiurm, but no equilibrium itself.
79
catalysts lower activation energy
make it easier for the sublate to reach transition atto.
80
THE FORMATION OF THE enzyme substrate complex in the active site I the key catalytic activity of the enzyme
reduces AE
81
active site
location within the enzyme where the vibrate is held during a chemical reaction
82
lock and key
enzymes active sitr (lock) is already in the appropriate conformation for the substrate (key) to bind.
83
induced fit model
more accepted than lock and key. both the substrate and active site changes in conformation. sub induces change in enzyme. interaction requires energy so endergonic. when releases, exergonic, no energy required. the shape of the active site becomes truly complementary only after the substrate begins binding to the enzyme
84
cofactors and coenzymes
small molecule that bind to teh active site of an enzyme and participate in the catalysis of the reaction, carrying charge through ionization, protonation or deprotonation.
85
enzymes with co factors
haloenzymes
| necessary for enzymes function: prosthetic groups
86
enzymes without co factors
apoenzymes
87
saturation
reaches a maximum - all active sites are occupied and b max is reached (working as fast as it can). only way to increase v max is to increase enzyme concentration (to handle the increase in substrate levels)
88
Michaelis mention equation
describes how the rate of the reaction (v) depends on teh concentration of both the enzyme and substrate to form product.
E + S= ES = E + P
1st = : k1- can also ES dissociate back into E + S (k-1)
2nd =: k cat
also
v = v max S/ Km + S
when reaction rate is equal to half of v max, Km= S
89
Km
substrate concentration at whi half of the enzymes active sites are full - Michralis constant
can be a measure of affinity
higher kM= lower affinity for its substrate because it requires a higher substrate concentration to be half saturated
90
v max
represents max enzyme velocity and is measured in moles of enzymes per second.
91
kcat
measures the number of substrate molecules turned over, or converted to products per enzyme molecule per seconds
92
a large k cat (high turneover) or a small Km (high substrate affinity)
will result in a higher catalytic efficiency, which indicate a more efficient enzume
93
lineweaever Burk plotdd
x interecept: -1/Km
| y intercept: 1/vmax
94
cooperatively
many subunits adn active sites
think of it like a party- the more people come, the more the atmosphere becomes relaxed and appealing, as the party dies down, more people are encouraged to leave so the hosts can clean up.
sigmoidal curve
substate binding happens more quickly as more active sites are occupied (in contrast to as suvrate binding decreases more binding from happening- saturation)
95
hills coeffeiecnet
greater than 1= positive cooperative binding , after 1 ligand bound, the affinity of the enzyme for further ligands increases
less than 1, negatively cooperative binding- after one ligand is bound, the affinity of the enzyme for further ligands decreases
=1, te enzyme does not exhibit cooperative binding
96
enzymes are specific during
temperature, pH (especially at high temperatures = enzymes fail), salinity
97
reversible inhibiation
competition, noncomp , mixed and uncomp
98
comp inihibtion
occupancy of the active sites . substrates cannot access enzymes binding sites if there is an inibbitro in the wy,
can be overcome by adding more substrates so that the substrate to inhibitor ratio is higher, more likely to bind substrate instead of inhibitor
does not alter v max, but increases Km (sub needs to be higher to reach half of the v max)
99
noncomp ini=hibition
inhibitors bind to allergic sites on the active sites- which induce a change in enzyme conformation. cannot be overcame by adding more sublate, decreases v max (less available enzyme to interact but does not affect Km (any copies of the enzyme that are still active maintain the same affinity for their substate)
100
mixed inhibition
inhibitor can bind to either the enzyme or the enzyme sub complex but with diff affinity
bind to allergic
101
uncomp inhibitor
bind only to the enzyme substrate complex and locks the substrate to the enzyme, preventing th release. increase affinity for the enzyme and substrate
bind at allosteric site
lower Km adn Vmax
102
irreversible inhibition
not easily overcome or reversed
103
allosteric enzyms
many binding sites
| regular the availability of the active site and the active site
104
enzymes in human body work best at what temp
37 degrees C
105
enzymes speciicity
determined by teh 3D active site shape
106
perioxiomses
contain hydrogen periods
| breakdown long chain FA via beta oxidation
107
microfilaments
actin with ATP and myosin to help in muscle contraction
protect the cell
play a role in cytokinesis with teh cleavage dirrpw
108
microtubuiles
tubular proteins
provide pathways which motor proteins like kinesis and dyne carry vesicles
cilia and flagella
centrioles in centriomes do the mitotic spindle
109
intermediate filmaents
cell to cell adhesion or maintenance of overall integrity of cell skelton
keratin, desmin, lamins
110
binary fission
asexual reproduction seen with prok
111
epithelial tissue
lining
112
connecie tissue
bone cartilage, tendons, blood to form ECF
113
facultative anaroebes
can use O2 if present, or if not thats ok too
| bacteria
114
plasmids
carry genes that help with antitbioic resistance
| also carry virulence facet, increase pathogenicity
115
bacteria genetic recombination
transofmrtion, conjugation and transfuction
116
transformation
integration of foreign genetic material into host genome
117
conjugation
```
mating
two cells from a conjugation bridge that transfers genetic material
sex pili make the bridge `
donor male and recipient female
must have sex factors, f factor
```
118
transfuction
requires a vector- virus that carries genetic material from 1 bacterium to another
119
single stranded viral RNA may be positive or negative sense
```
positive= genome may be directly translated to functional proteins by ribosomes of the hot cell
negative= RNA acts as a template for synthesis of a completmenatyr stanrf, which is then used to make the proteins
```
120
lytic cycle
involves the reproduction of viruses using a host cell to manufacture more viruses; the viruses then burst out of the cell.
121
lyosegenic cycle
nvolves the incorporation of the viral genome into the host cell genome, infecting it from within.
122
interphase
G1, S, G2
| longest part of the cell cycle
123
cells that dont divide spend their time in
G0
124
euchchromatin
less condensed form- DNA must be available for RNA polymerase so that genes can be transcribed.
heterochromatin - condensed and cannot be transcribed
125
G1
cells create organelles and protein production (mito, rib, ER) while also increasing their size
restriction point- before entering S phase - must contain propercomlment of DNA and pass the checkpoint
126
S stae
replicate genetic material so that each daughter-in-law cell will ave identical copies. each chromosome ill have two identical chromatids that are bound together by a centromere
46 chrom, 92 chromatids/
twice as much DNA as cells In G1
127
G2
quality control checkpoint
128
Mitosis
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis
129
p53
repairs DNA between G1 and S checkpoiint
130
prophase
condensation of the chromatin into chromosomes
131
metaphase
along chromatomses at teh mataphase/equatorial plate
| centrioles on opposite ends of the cell and kinetochore fibers interact with fibers of spindle
132
anaphase
centromeres split so that each chromatid has its own distinct centromere, and sister chromatids seperate/
133
telophase
reverse of prophase- spindle disappears, chrom uncoiled cytokinesis occurs- sprat cytoplasms
134
meiosis 1 involves
homologous chromosomes - generating haploid daughter cells
| 23 homologous pairs of chrom - one from each parents.
135
prophase 1 in meoisis
homologous chromsomes come together and intertwine - syanpsis and crossing overing occurs
136
males are
hemizygous- 1 copy of the Z chrom
137
cells of leydig secrete
testosterone
138
sperm is produced in that
seminiferous tulles and the intersistutal cells of Leydig
139
sperm is nourished by
Sertoli cells
140
spermatogenssi
formation of haploid sperm through meiosis
| occurs in semniferous tubes
141
ovaries
produce estrogen and progesterone
142
one egg per month is ovulated
yes
143
oogenesis
all oogonia have already undergone DNA replication adn are primary oocytes by birth.
144
GnRH
triggers anterior pit to trigger FSH and LH which triggers the production of other sex hormones
145
follicular phase
menstrution begins. uterine lining sheds. GnrH increases, FSH and LH increase therefore, ovarian follicles are secreted, produce estrogen, negative feedback on GNRH LH adn FSH
146
ovulation
estrogen also positive feedbacks (and negative) LH which indices ovulation- releases ovum from ovary in o the abdominal cavity
147
luteal phase
LH raises the ruptured follicle to form corpus leutuem which secretes progesterone. maintains uterine lining for implantation
148
menstruction
without implantation, ,levels decline and uterine is shed
149
development of mature sperm
spermatogonia, 1 spermocyte, 2 spermocyte, speramtid, spermatozoan
150
spindle attaches to kinetochores
prophase
151
from the time of birth until ovulation, egg cells are in prophase of meiosis 1 (primary oocyte)
at ovulation, egg has completed meiosis 1 and is in metaphase 2 (secondary oocyte), once sperm penetrates the outer layer f the secondary oocyte and finishes meiosis 2
152
estrogen
for endometrium development
153
abdominal cavity is before the
fallipoian tube (and where the egg is released at
154
nondisjucntion
incorrect segregation of homolog chrom during anaphase 1 or of sister chromatids during anaphase 2
155
ectoderm
integument- epidermis, hair, nails, epithelial of nose, mouth, lens of eye, nervous system
156
endoderm
epithelial lining o fthh digestive and respiratory tratcs, liver, pancreas, bladder
157
mesoderm
musckosletal system, circulatory system, excretory, gonads, adrenal core
158
the influence of specific group of cells on teh differentiation of another group of cells
induction
| eyes are formed between teh induction of the brain adn teh ectoderm
159
senesence
biological aging
160
the tissues a particular stem cell can differentiate into are determined by its
potenncy
161
greatest potency
totient cells- any cell type
162
pluripotent
three germ cell layers. can differentiate into any cell type besides for the placental structures
163
multipotent
multiple cells
| like in the blood (RBC, WBC, platelets), but not skin cells, neurons, etc.
164
embryo
morula --> bastula--> gastrula
| solid ball of cells, hollow center, three germ layers form
165
sodium is actively transported out of the nephron into teh PCT adn DCT (against gradient)
in the inner medulla, thin ascending limb, sodium passes down its concentration gradient
166
thick ascending limb
has many mitochondria for ATP for active transport of NA and CL- out of the filtrate
167
lowest solute concentration
cortex- where PCT and some DCT are found
168
passage of blood through the kidneys
renal artery--> afferent artery--> glomerulus--> efferent articlole--> vasa recta (around the nephnr tubular) --> renal vein
169
ADH and aldosterone increases water reabsorption in the kidney
yes
170
ADH works by
increasing the permeability of the collecting duct to wate
peptide hormone. vasopressin
alcohol adn caffeine inhibit ADH
allows more water to be reabsorbed at collecting ducts (inhibits waTer elimination)
inserts aquaporins into collecting ducts, decreases volume of urine
171
aldosrerone
stimulates reabsorption of sodium from teh DCT and collecting ducts .decreased blood pressure stimulates the release of renin, which cleaves angiotensin which produces aldosterone adn increase BP
172
hypothalmus
regulates body temperature
173
PCT absorbs
glucose, aa, organic molecules, 100% of nutrients, water, ions
174
DCT absorbs
The role of the early DCT is the absorption of ions, including sodium, chloride and calcium. It is impermeable to water.
175
excess ACH leads to
parasympathetic- contraction of the bladder, increased sweat glands`
176
PCT into blood
waste, urea, drugs
177
DCT absorbs
Na+- regulated by aldosterone
| water
178
descending limb
highly permeable to water, osmosis (water flows out) because blood is more hypertonic (full of salt and solutes)
179
ascending limb
highly permeable to salt (not water) by ACTIVE TRANSPORT
180
endocrine signaling involves
the secretion of hormones into the bloodstream. hormones than travel to distant targets where they bind to receptors and induce a change in gene expression or cell function
181
peptide hormones are composed of
aa and derived from precursor proteins that are cleaved during post translational modification
polar- can't pass through pm
trigger second messengers when bind to extra cell rec
rapid onset but short lived effects
travel freely in blood stream (without carrier) because water soluable
182
steroid hormones
derived from chol
minimally polar and can pass through the pm
bind and promote change in cystolic and intranuclear receptor- Horm rec complex binds to DNA, alters transcription of genes
steroid have slow onset but long lived
lipid soluble so need a carrier when in blood
183
amino acid derived hrmones
modified AA
share with steroid adn peptide hormones
epi,nor
184
direct hormones
secreted adn act directly on target tissue
insulin released on pancreas causes increased uptake of glucose by muscles
prolactin (stimulates milk production in mammary glands), endorphins (decrease perception of pain), growth hormone,
non endocrine gland
185
tropic hormones
intermediated needed to act to influence target tissue
GnRH stimulates LH and FSH - stimulate production of testestrone to cause direct changes in bones and hair follicles
FSH, LH, GNRH, ACTH, CRF
endocrine gland
186
hypothalamus
```
controls pit through release of paracrine H
secretes GnRH (which secretes LH, FSH and GH), TRH, CRG
```
187
posterior pit
release oxytocin (uterine contractions during labor) and ADH (increase water reabsorption in collecting ducts of kidney) (synthesized by hypothalamus
188
thyroid
controller by thyroid stimulating hormone from ant pit
| energy production more efficient b T3 and T4
189
parathyroid glands
raises blood calcium levels (opposite of calcitonin) and increases vitamin D for calcium absorption in the gut
increased CA reabsorption int eh kidneys, increased bone reabsorption and increased absorption of ca in the gut
190
adrenal glands
located on top of the kidneys
| secretes corticosteroids- glucosi, miniera and sex hormones
191
glucocorticoid steroids
regulate glucose levels and protein metabolism
cortisol and cortisone
increase glucneogensis adn decrease protein synthesis
increases blood sugar when stressed
192
mineral corticoids
aldosterone! increasing sodium reabsorption in the DCT and collecting duct
also increasing reabsorption of potassium and hydrogen ions
renin angiotensin pathway
193
cortical sex hromones
androgens and estrogens.
194
adrenal medulla
epi, nor (catecholamines)
fight or flight responses
increase glucose, heart rate, dilate bronchi, vasodilation of BV
195
pancreas
exocrine and endocrine (digestion and insulin, glucagon, somatostatin)
196
glucagon
increases glucose production by triggering glucogenogenssi and breakdown of protein adn fat
197
insulin
take ip glucose and store as glycogen
| B cells
198
somatostatin
inhibitor of glucose and glucagon
always inhibitory
leading to decreased insulin and glucagon
199
pineal gland releases
melatonin which helps regulate circadian rhythms
200
kidneys secrete
erthyripoeitn- stimulate bone marrow to product RBC in response to low O2 levels
201
acromegaly
enlargement of small bones in exteemedities and facial structures in adults with too much GH
202
cretinism
poor neurological and physical development because iodine defificny - swelling of thyroid gland
203
dopamine secretion blocks
prolactin release
204
accessory organs of digestion
salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
205
enteric nervous sytem
controls peristalsis
| unregulated by parasympth and down regulated in sympath
206
ADH and vasopressin promote
thrist
207
glucagon adn gherkin promot
hunger
208
leptin and cholecytoskinin
promote fullness
209
stomach has 4 parts
fundus, body, antrum, plyourous
| folds called rugae
210
chief cells secrete
pepsinogen, which is a protease that activated by teh acidic nature of the stomach
211
mucous cells produce
bicarb rich mucus to protect the stomach
212
parietal cells
secrete HCL and intrinsic factor, which is needed for vitamin B12 absorption
213
G cells secrete
gastrin, peptide hormone that increases HCL secretion adn gastric motility
214
food pass into the duodenum through the
pyloric sphinctor
215
small intestine
duodena, jejunum and ileum
216
duodenum
chemical digestion
breakdown maltose, lactose into monosaccharides
peptidases present
217
secretin
stimulates release of pancreatic juices into the dueonum and slows motility
218
cholesystokin
stimulates bile release from gallbladder , release of pancreatic juices, and fullnesses
219
acing cells
in the pancreas, produce pancreatic juices that contain bicarb, amylase and peptidases and lipase
220
liver syntheizes
bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and secreted into the duenodum directly
221
bile function
emuslfies fat- making them soluable and increasing their surface area
222
bile is. made up of
bile salts, pigments (bilirubin) and chol
223
bilirubin
is the breakdown of HB
224
liver
produces urea, detoxifies, produces bile, albumin and clotting factors
225
gallbladder stores and concentrates bile
yes
226
jejunum and ileum
absorption
| lined with vili and lacteal (vessel of lympth system)
227
lacteal
fat soluable compounds- fats, cool, vitamins, enter
228
water soluable compounds for digestion
monosaccarides, aa, water, small aa, water enter cap bed
229
large intestine
absorbs water and salts, forms feces
| cecum, cold, rectum
230
lipase
chemically digests fats
231
dueonum pH
Ph is 8.5
232
carboxypeptidase
breaks down proteins in small intestine
233
skeletal muscle
involved support and movement, propulsion of blood into the venous system and thermoregulation. striated and voluntary, polynucleated
234
slow twitch fibers
oxidative phosphorlation red fibers
| high myoglobin and mito
235
fast twitch fibers
anaerobic metabolism white fibers
236
smooth muscle
respiratory, reproduce, CV and digestive system. nonstarter and autonomic control, uninucleated.
237
cardiac muscle
contractile tissue of the heart. striated and autonomic and uninucleated. shows myogenic (contraction without neural input- same as smooth muscle)
cells are connected with intercalated discs and gap junctions (flow of ions between adjacent cells)
238
sacromeres
basic contractile unit of started muscle
| myosin (thick) and actin (thin)
239
troponin and tropomyosin
regulate actin myosin interaction and found on actin.
240
M line (in sarcomere)
M line: located in the middle of the sarcomere
241
I band
thin filaments
242
H zone
thick filaments
243
A band
thick filaments only- constant during contraction
244
sarcomeres that attach end to end to become
myofibrils
245
myocyte
muscle cell or fiber
| contains many myofibrils
246
myofibrils are surrounded by
sacroplasmic reticiulum, a ca containing modififed ER and the cell membrane of a myocyte (sacrolemma)
247
T tubules
connected to teh sarcolemma and allow action potentials to reach all parts of the muscle
248
muscle contraction begins at teh
neuromuscular junction where motor neuron releases ACh that binds to receptors on the sarcolemma, causing depol. depol spreads to t tubules from sacromella and triggers release of CA ions. CA binds to troponin, causing a shift in tropomyosin and exposure of the myosin binding site on teh actin thin filament. shortening of teh sarcomere occurs as the myosin head binds to the exposed sites on actin, forming cross bridges and pulling teh actin filament along the thick filament which results in a contraction. aka sliding filament model
249
muscele relaxes when
ACH is degraded by acetylcholinesterase, terminating teh signal and allowing calcium to be brought back into the SR. ATP binds to myosin head and allows it to release from actin.
250
muscle cells exhibit an all or none response called a
simple twitch
251
frequency summation
addition of many simple twitch before the muscle has the opportunity to fully relax
252
tetanus
simple switches that occur so frequently as to not let the muscle relax at all- more prolonged and stronger contraction
253
muscle cells have addiotnal energy reserves to reduce oxygen debt and prevent fatigue
creatine phosphate (transfer phosphate group to ADP to form ATP) and myoglobin (heme protein that is a oxygen reserve)
254
internal and extneral skeltons
endoskeletons and exoskeltons
255
axial Skelton
consists of structures in the mid line (skull, rib cage, vertebral column)
256
appendicular skelton
bones in the limbs, pectoral girdle, pelvis
257
bone is derived
mesoderm
258
compact bones
provides strength and is dense
259
spongy or cancellous bones
has lattice like structures consisting of bony spicules known as trabeculae and caivities filled with bone marrow
260
long bone break down
diaphyses that form metaphases and end in epiphyses (growth plate)
261
bone is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called
periosteum
| site of attachment of bones to muscle tissues. can differentiate into osteoblasts
262
bones are attached to muscles by tendons
and to each other by ligaments
263
osteoblasts
build bnoe
264
osteoclasts
reabsorb bone
265
parathyroid hormone
increases resorption of bone, increasing CA and phosphate in blood
266
vitamin D
ncreases resorption of bone, leading to increased turnover and production of stronger bone
267
Calcitonin
increases bone formation and decreases CA concentration in the blood
268
cartildge
firm elastic material secreted by chondrocytes
in areas with more flexibility or cushioning
avascular and not innervated
269
immovable joints
fused together to form sutures
270
movable joints
strengthen by ligaments and contain synovial fluid (lubticating motion)
271
muscles that serve opposite function (one contracts and the other releases)
antagonistic pairs
272
articular surfaces of the bone are covered with
smooth articular cartilage- stops bones from contacting one another
273
yellow marrow
adipose tissue
274
endochondral ossification
replcemnet of cartridge with bones and occurs in long ones
275
intramembraneous ossifcation
formation of bone from undifferentiated connective tissue cells and occurs in skull
276
heart is composed of
cardiac muscle and has the pulmonary and systematic cirulation
277
the atria are separated from teh ventricles by teh
atrioventricular valce (tricupsid on teh R, bicuspid on the L)
278
the ventricles are separated from teh vasculature from
semilunar valves (pulmonary on R, aortic on L)
279
the pathway of blood
RA (tricuspid)-- RV (pulmonary valve)-- pulmonary artery--lungs--pulmon veins--left atrium(mitral valve) --LV (aortic valve)--aorta--arteries--aterioles--capillaries--venules-beins-vena cava-RA
280
Left side of the heart has more muscle than the right side because of systematic circulation has a much higher resistance and pressure
yes
281
electrical conduction
SA node (sinoatrial node) and then goes to the AV node (atrioventricular) -- bundle of HIS---purkinje fibers
282
systole
AV valves are closed during ventricular contaction
283
diastole
hert is relaxed and semilunar valves are closed
284
CO
HR x SV
285
arties
elastic, highly muscular, thick
recoil and helps propel blood forward.
away from heart
286
capillaries
one cell thick walls so RBC travel single file. site for gas and solute exchange
287
eins
inelastic, thin that transport blood to the heart.. no recoil but can stretch . valves to maintain a one way flow
288
portal system
blood passes through two capillary beds in a series
289
heaptic portal system
blood travels from the gut capillary beds to teh liver via the hepatic portal vein
290
hypophyseal portal system
blood travels from the cap bed in the hypothalamus to the cap bed in the anterior pit
291
renal portal system
blood travels from the glomerulus to the vasa recta through the efferent artierole
292
blood
is composed of cells and plasma, aqueous mixture of nutrients, salts and repistaory gases, hormones, blood proteins
293
erythrocytes RBC
```
lack mitocoonia, nucleus and organelles
have hemoglobin (carries O2)
```
294
hematocrit
% of blood composed of RBC
295
leukocytes WBC
formed in bone marrow
296
thromobocytes
platelets are cell fragments required from coagulation
297
blood antigens
A B O and rH factors
298
Blood pressure
force per unit area that is exerted on teh walls of blood vessel by blood - must be higher enough to overcame the resistance
maintained baroreceptors and chemoreceptors
299
gas and solute exchange occurs at the level of the capillaries and relies on the existence of concentration gradients to
faciliate diffusion, leaky
300
hydrostatic pressure
pressure of the fluid within the blood vessel
| forces fluid out to the arteriolar end of cap bed
301
osmotic pressure
sucking pressure that draws water to solutes
| due to proteins
302
oxygen to hemoglobin has cooperative binding
more the better
303
high partial pressure of O2 in teh
lungs, resulting in blowing of oxygen onto hemoglobin
304
low partial pressure of oxygen in the
tissues, resulting in unloading of o2 with hemoglobin.
305
carbon dioxide is carried throughout the blood in the forms of
carbonic acid,`bicarb and hydrogen ions because polar and highly soluable
306
low pH, high temp, high CO2
decreased affinity for O2
307
clots can be broken down by
plasmin
308
most resistance to blood flo
artieroles
309
all the alleles in. given population
gene pool
310
mutations
changes in DNA sequences
311
point mutations
substituting one nucleotide fro another
312
frameshift mutations
moving teh three letters transcriptional reading frame
313
silent mutation
no effect on protein
314
missence mutation
subsitution of 1 aa for another
315
nonsense mutation
subsutiton of a stop codon for an aa
316
insertions and deletions result in shifts of
reading frame, leading to downstream changes I aa
317
inversion mutations
when segment of DNA is reversed
318
insertion mutation
when segment of DNA is moved from 1 chrom to another
319
transmembrane mutation
occur when a segment of DNA is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chrom
320
genetic leakeage
flow of genes between species through hybrid offspring
321
genetic drift
composition of gene pool changes as a result of chance
322
founder effect
bottlenecks that isolators a small population, leading to inbreeding and a increased prevalence of homozygous genotypes
323
recombination frequency
likelihood of 2 alleles being separated during crossover in meiossi
324
natural selection
chance variations exist between individuals and that advantageous variations- those that increase an individuals fitness for survival or adaption to the eni=vironment have the most reproductive successes
325
modern synthesis model
mutation adn recombination are mechanisms of variation
| differential reproduction to be the mechanism of reproductive success1
326
inculsive fitness
organisms succes based on number of soffpsrng, supporting offspring, ability of offspring to support others, survival of offspring/genes in later generations
327
punctuated equbilibrium
evolution is a slow process with rapid burst of evolutionary activity
328
stabilizing selection
phenotypes are in narrow range, not extremes
329
directional selection
average phenotype to one extreme
330
disruptive selection
moves population toward 2 different phenotypes at teh extremes and can lead to speciation
331
adaptive radition
rapid emergency of multiple species from a common ancestor, each of which occupies its own ecological niche
332
species
group of organisms able to breed and form fertile offspring
333
divergent evolution
2 species share a common ancestor become more different
334
parallel evolution
occurs when 2 species share a common ancestor and evolve in similar ways due to analogous selection pressures
335
convergent evolution
occurs when 2 species not sharing a recent ancestor evolve to become more similar due to analogous selection predssures
336
hardy weinberg
q^2 + 2pq +p^2
| p +q=1
337
innate immunity
composed of defenses that are always active, but cannot target a specific invader adn cannot maintain immunologic memory- nonspecific
338
adaptive immunity
composed of defenses that take time to activate but target a specific invader adn can mtainin immunologic memory= specific immunity
339
immune cells come from the
bone marrow
340
spleen adn lymph nodes
sites where immune responses can be mounted and B cells are activated
341
skin
secretes antimicrobial compounds like defensins
342
mucus
traps pathogens in resp system
343
tears and saliva contain lyzosoyme
antibacterial compound
344
stomach has acid that kills pathogens
in teh gut
345
interferons
help prevent viral replication and dispersion by cells
346
macrophages
ingest pathogens and present them on MHC molecules- secrete cytokines too
347
dendritic cells
antigen presenting cells on teh skin
348
NK cells
attack cells without MHC molecules
349
neutrophils
ingest. aceroa
350
esoinophils
allergic reaction and parasite infections- release histamine
351
basophils
allergic reactions
352
humoral immunity
antibody production by plasma cells, or activated B cells
an produce antibodies against a specific antigen.
353
antibidoes
2 heavy chains 2 light chains. target antigen
| can mark pathogens for ddestruction or cause aggregation of complexes
354
memory b cells
send exposure to a pathogen and can launch a big immune response
355
cell mediated immunity
functions of T cells
kill viruses
protects the body against intracellular pathogens. Recognises pathogens in circulating in blood or lymph.
nonspecific
356
passive immunity
transfer of antibidoes to an individual
357
structural proteins
cytoskeleton. scaffolding system or web for the cell, proteins help actor cytoskeleton to cell membrane. in addition to intracellular support, extracellular matrices composed of protein like tendons, ligaments, cartilage- made up of collagen, elastin, keratin, actin and tubular.
358
collagen
trihelical fiber and makes up connective tissue extracellular matrix. providing strength and flexbilbilty
359
elastin
onnective tissue extracellular matrix. primary role is to stretch and recoil
360
keratins
intermediate filament proteins in epithelial cells. contrubet to the mechanical integrity of teh cell and also functions as regaultroy proteins. makes up hair and nails
361
actin
microfilaments adn the thin filaments in myofibrils. most abundant protein in eukaryote cells. polar (positive and negative side) so motor proteins can travel along actin filament in a 1 way street
362
tubulin
microtubules. provide structure, chrom seperation in mitosis, transport with kinesis and dyne
has polarity
363
motor proteins
like in cilia and flagella.
| enzymatic activity with teh use of ATPase
364
myosin
primary motor protein that interacts with actin
thick filament
movement of myosin neck vital for power stroke or sarcomere cntraction
365
kinesins and dyneins
motor proteins associated with microtubules
kinesin - play a role in aligning chrom during metaphase
dyneins- cilia and flagella
kin bring vesicles toward the positive end of microtubule, dyn to negative end- vesicle transport
366
binding proteins
bind a specific substrate, either to sequester it in the body or hold its concentration at steady state
367
cell adhesion molecules
CAM- allow cells to bind to other cells or surfaces
368
cadherins
CA dependent glycoproteins that hold similar cells together
369
integrins
2 mem spanning chains and permit cells to adhere to proteins in ec matrix. some signaling capabillties
370
selectins
allow cells to adhere to carbs on the surfaces of other cells and used in immune system
371
antibodies
or immunoglobulins (Ig) are used by teh immune system to target a specific antigen, which ma be a protein on the surface of a pathogen or toxin
contain a constant and variable region (responsible for antigen binding)
disulfide linkages and non covalent interactions hold together chains
372
ion channels
regulating ion flow into or out of cell
ungated - always open
voltage gated- membrane potential
LG - open with substate binding
373
enzyme linked receptors
participate in cell signaling through ec ligand binding and initiation of second messenger cascades
374
`GPCR
membrane bound protein associated with trimetric G protein
second messenger systems
lignad binds to G protein
GDP replace with GTP , alpha subunit dissociates from beta and gamma
alpha subunit alters the activity o fAC or PKC
GTP is dephosphorlyated to GDP and alpha rebinds to other subunits
375
electrophoresis
uses a gel matrix to observe the migration of proteins in response to an electric field
376
native PAGE
maintains the proteins shape but results are difficult to compare because mass to charge rations differ for each protein
analyze proteins in native shape
377
SDS page
denatures the protein and mask the native charge so comparison of size is moreaccurate, but functional protein cannot be recaptured from teh gel has SDS- disrupts all non covalent interactions
378
isoelectric focusing
separates proteins by their isoelectric point (PI) the protein migrates toward an electrode until it reaches a region of the gel where pH=PI of the protein
positive protein= go to anode = acidic, basic gel = negative cathode)
379
isoelectric point
the pH at which teh protein or aa is electrically neutral, with an equal number of positive and negative charges
zwitterion, amino group is protonated and carbonyl group is deprotinated and side chain neutral
380
chromatogaphy
homogenized protein mixture to be fractionated through a porous matrix
the more similar the compound is to its surroundings (polarity, charge) the more it will stick to and move more slowly through its surroundings
place on stationary phase/absorpent
elute by running through mobile phase
381
amount of time spent in stationary phase
retention time
382
column chromatogrphy
silica beads as absorbent and gravity moves solvent and compounds down the column
size and polarity have a role in determining how fast a cmpd moves through the polar silica
less polar= faster it elutes (shorter retention time)
383
ion exchange chromatography
beads in column are coated with charged substances, so bin to compd with opposite charge
384
size exlcusion chrom
beads contain tiny pores of varying sizes. all small comoounds to enter and slow them done
large cant enter so move and travel faster
385
affinity chrom
column with high affinity for the protein
receptor that bidns to protein or specific antibody
preotin of interest is retained in column
386
protein structure can be attained by
X ray CHROM and NMR spec
387
X ray chrom
measured electron density
388
Edman degradation
primary structure of protein, sequential digestion of the protein with specific cleavage enzymes
50-70 aa
389
UV spec
concentration of protein
390
SDS
solubilizes proteins to give them uniformly negative charges so seperation is based on size
391
ion chanelles do not use
second messenger systems and therefor hormones unlikely to bind
392
calcium and magnesium
bind to proteins
393
big proteins
chromatography over elctrophoressi
394
monosacracrises with 3C, 4C, 5C,6C
trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses
395
carbs with aldehyde group
aldoses
396
carbs with ketone group
ketoses
397
6C aldehyde carb
aldohexose
398
5C ketone carb
ketopentose
399
in a carb
carbon C most oxidized
400
in a carb with kettle the carbonyl C is alway
C2
401
sugars with the ghihest numbered chiral C with teh OH Group on the R
d sugars
402
sugars with the ghihest numbered chiral C with teh OH Group on the L
L sugars
403
diasteromers
non superimposable configurations with similar connectivity
| different at least one chiral C
404
epimers
differ at exactly 1 chiral C
405
anomers
different the at anomeric C
406
lipids re insolubale in water and soluable in
nonpolar solventrs
407
phopholipids
amphiphatic and form bilayer of biological membranes
have hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails
head is attached by phosphodiester linkage
408
saturation of FA tails determines the
fluidity of the membrane
409
saturated FA are less
fluid
only single bonds
butter
greater LDF and stable
410
unsaturated FA
one or more double bonds
kinks in Fa making it difficult to stack and solidify
oil
411
glcerophospholipids
glycerol backbone by ester linkages to two FA by phosphodiester linkage to a highly polar head group
type of phosopholipid
412
sphingolipids
```
sphingosine backbone (not glycerol) with FA
type of phospholipid
```
413
waxes
long chain FA esterfiifed to long chains of alcohol
| protection against evaporation and paraites
414
terpenes
steroid precursors made from isoprene (5C)
| 1 temperance = 2 isoprenes
415
steroids
three cyclohexane rings and one cyclopentance ring
| 4 RINGS
416
cholesterol
important for membrane fluidity and stability steroid
417
prostaglandins
autocrine and paracrine signaling molecules that regulate CAMP levels
powerful effects on SM contraction, body temp
20 C mcare unsaturated carboxylic acids with.1 5C ring
418
vitamins
consumed in diet
| water and lipid soluable categories
419
vitamin A
carotene
| unsaturated hydrocarbon important in vision and growth and immune
420
vitamin D
cholecalciferol
| increases calcium and phosphate uptake to promote bone formation
421
vitamin E
antioxidants
aromatic ring destroys free radicals
cancer and aging
422
vitamin K
postranslational modifications to form prothrombin, clothing factor in blood
423
triglycerides
preferred method of storing E for long term use- one glycol attached to 3 FA by ester bonds
hydrophobic
424
the carbon atoms in lipids are more reduce adn so
twice as much E than carbs during oxidation
425
adipocutd
store triglycerides
426
soaps act as surfactants, forming miscelles
miscelles can dissolve a lipid soluable molecule in its FA core adn washes away water
427
in eukaryote, DNA is wound around
histone proteins (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4) to form a nucleoside
428
DNA and histones make up
chromatin
429
heterochromatin
dense, transcriptionally silent DNA
| dark under microscope
430
euchormatin
less dense, transcriptionally active
| light under microscope
431
telomeres
ends of chrom
| high GC content to prevent unraveling of DNA
432
centromeres
hold ester chromatids together until anaphase in mitosis
433
GC
strongest bond
434
chargaffs rule
purines and pyrimidines are equal in number in a DNA molecule
435
helicase
unwinds DNA
436
single stranded DNA binding proteins
prevent speared strands from reassociation and protect against nucleases which digest DNA
437
supercoiling
wrapping of DNA onto itself. topoisomerase relieves teh strain by negative supercoil
imagine a twisted telephone wire not good
438
replication process is
semi conservative because one parental strand is retinaed in each of the to resulting identical double strands DNA molecules
439
DNA polymerase
responsbile for reading teh DNA template and synthesizing new strand
synthesize 5-3
440
RNA primer in DNA replication
start replication in the 5-3 direction on each strand
441
DNA ligase
seals ends of Ozaki fragments together
442
mutated genes that cause cancer
oncogenes
443
mismatch repair
detect and remove errors introduced during replication that were missed in teh S phase . in G2 phase
444
restriction enzymes
recognize specific double stranded DNA sequences
445
recombinant DNA
allows DNA fragments from any source to be multiplied by either gene clomimg or polymerase chain reactions
PALINDROMIC
446
hydridzayion
joining of completmenatry base pair sequences
447
PCR
produce millions of copies of a DNA sequence without amplifying teh DNA In bacteria
primers
448
gel electrophoresis
seperate macromolecules by size and charge
| all DNA is negatively charged becasue phosphate groups so migrate to anode
449
southern blot
detect the presence and quantity of various DNA strands with probes that bind to single stranded DNA
probes are labeled with indicator to see a specific stran
450
promotor is not usually in a
intron
451
splice acceptor site
In the splicing of RNA, the site at the 3' end of an intron.
452
adhesion proteins
adhesion proteins act in binding with other cells or with the extracellular matrix, not protein folding.
453
chaperone proteins
which facilitates proper protein folding and inhibits the formation of nonfunctional protein aggregates.
454
clatherin
clathrin functions in formation of vesicles for intracellar trafficking, not in protein folding.
455
signal sequence
This portion of the mRNA is located in the 5′ region and will signal to the ribosome that translation needs to be continued in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
A sequence of amino acid residues bound at the amino terminus of a nascent protein during protein translation, which when recognized by the signal recognition particle results in the transport of the nascent protein to the organelle of destination
456
nuclear localization signal`
he nuclear localization signal is a sequence that tags the protein for it to be transported into the nucleus.
457
chemiosmosis
Chemiosmosis is the only step of cellular respiration where NAD+ is neither reduced to form NADH, nor is NADH oxidized to form NAD+.
458
mysosin binds actin after troponin binds to which ion?
Ca- Ca2+ ions play a critical role in myosin-actin binding during skeletal muscle contraction. Ca2+ binds to troponin and allows tropomyosin to move, freeing the site of interaction between actin and myosin.
459
steroids have
A steroid is composed of a 6-6-6-5 fused ring assembly, which is a total of 4 fused rings.
460
When concentrated urine is being produced, in which of the following regions of the kidney will the glomerular filtrate reach its highest concentration?
The collecting duct is the final structure in which water reabsorption occurs, which concentrates filtrate. The medullary portion of the collecting duct is the last portion of the tubules where reabsorption can occur. In the portion of the tubule that follows, there will be no more reabsorption. Thus, the medullary portion of the collecting duct contains the most concentrated glomerular filtrate that will correspond to the urine.
461
Na K aTPASE activity cannot be measured by
Free energy does not correlate with enzyme activity because it is NOT a measure of reaction rate/activity.
462
to restore resting membrane
upon ATP hydrolysis, three Na+ are transported outside the cell and two K+ are transported inside the cell against their concentration gradient.
463
transcription factors act by
p65 and cRel are transcription factors and regulate the expression of other genes by binding to the promoter or the enhancer of the gene located on the DNA.
464
P-gp is found in cholesterol rich domains
pointing to lipid rafts, which are a part of the pm
465
microtubue function
microtubules bind to chromosomes at the level of the kinetochore and regulate their migration toward the opposite poles of the cell during anaphase.
466
filtrate moves into the glomerulus from
passive flow due to pressure difference
467
coutnercurrent exchange system
The mechanism's effect is dependent on the two fluids flowing in opposite directions, and having a concentration gradient between them.
468
enzymes alter
local pH, substrate shape, adn can co-localizing substrate but cannot alter the substrate primary structure.
469
if somethign is an amino acid
it can form peptide bonds
470
enzymes are
CATLYSTSES
471
cells that are in. interpahse are
not dividing. Pericytes and other supportive cells were growth arrested, thus they were not dividing. Cells that are in interphase are not actively dividing.
472
fibroblasts
fiboblast is the most common type of cell found in connective tissue. Fibroblasts secrete collagen proteins that are used to maintain a structural framework for many tissues. They also play an important role in healing wounds
Fibroblasts are supportive cells that are not in direct contact with the circulating blood, thus they are not likely to play a role in gas exchange between blood and the surrounding tissues.
473
smooth muscle cells
Smooth-muscle cells are not in direct contact with blood, thus they are least likely to play a critical role in gas exchange between blood and the surrounding tissues
.
474
endothelial cells
Endothelial cells are the cells that are in direct contact with blood and the surrounding matrix so these are the cells that play the most important role in gas exchange.
regulates exchanges between the bloodstream and the surrounding tissues. Signals from endothelial cells organize the growth and development of connective tissue cells that form the surrounding layers of the blood-vessel wall.
475
pericytes
Pericytes are cells present at intervals along the walls of capillaries (and post-capillary venules). In the CNS, they are important for blood vessel formation, maintenance of the blood–brain barrier, regulation of immune cell entry to the central nervous system (CNS) and control of brain blood flow.
located between endothelial cells and matrix (no contact with blood_
476
bacterial DNA is
Bacterial DNA is double stranded like the eukaryotic DNA.
477
the way nucleotides bond
Nucleotides are linked to one another by phosphodiester bonds between the sugar base of one nucleotide (thymine) and the phosphate group of the adjacent nucleotide (adenine) in a way that the 5′ end bears a phosphate, and the 3′ end a hydroxyl group.
478
negative feedback loop between pit and hypothal
Release of ACTH from the pituitary is regulated by negative feedback. In normal conditions, high levels of circulating glucose and other stressors activate the production of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus. CRH will stimulate the pituitary gland to release ACTH which will trigger cortisol release from the adrenal cortex. Finally, the presence of high levels of circulating cortisol will inhibit CRH secretion (negative feedback) thus closing the loop. In Addison's disease, the circulating levels of ACTH will be higher than normal because the factor that triggers the inhibition of CRH production, high cortisol levels, is absent or low.
479
too high glucocortiocoids
igh levels of circulating glucocorticoids will increase protein degradation in various tissues, muscles included. A direct consequence of protein degradation in muscles is muscle weakness.
480
insulin
aids glucose uptake by decreasing the cellular concentration of glucose.
481
The item indicates that working skeletal muscles use glucose in an insulin-independent manner.
Thus, exercise will be able to reduce the levels of glucose in both types of diabetes.
482
insulin cleavage (protein)
he endomembrane system is the portion of the cells that is in charge of modifying proteins that will be secreted. Thus, it is most likely that insulin cleavage will occur in the endomembrane system.
483
diabetets in essence
diabetes affected individuals will use proteins and lipids as a source of glucose, .
484
RNA polymerase locates genes by searching for
DNA promotor regions
485
in transcribing mRNA
RNA polymerase 2 binds to TATA box promotor region
486
post translational modifications
7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap on 5' end
487
poly A tail to
3' end
488
splicing
introns are removed in lariat structure and exons are pushed together
alternative splicing increases variability of gene products
489
plasma membrane
semi permeable phospholipid bilayer
chooses which particles can enter and leave the cell
fat soluable can cross easily, larger water soluable cannot
protect from exterior environment \communicaiton and transport and receptors
490
cel walls of plants and bacteria have
high glycoprotein and carb coats
491
phospholipids
make up the cell membrane
492
lipid rafts
collections of similar lipids with or without associated proteins that serve as attachment points for other biomolecules- role sin signaling
493
flippases
specific membrane proteins that maintain the bidirectional transport for lipids between the layers of the phospholipid bilayer
494
protein and carbs also may move within the membrane
but are slowed because of their large size
495
triacylgylercides adn free FA
phospholipid precursers and found in low levels in the membrane
496
glyercophospholipds
replace one FA with a phosphate group in a triglyceride and you have a polar head! Can assemble into micelles or lipless due to hydrophobic interactions
primary component of cell membrane
497
steroid moleucles adn c cholesterol
fluidity
498
waxes
membrane stabilty and structural integrity
499
FA
carboxylic acids that contain a hydrocarbon chain and terminal carboxyl group
500
trigylcerdes
storage lipid involved with metabolism
| 3 FA chains and esterfifed glycerol molecule
501
unsaturated
healthier fats
one or more double bonds and exist in liquid form
fluiditiy
502
saturated FA
no kinks because no double bonds adn so decrease membrane fluidity
less healthy
503
sphingolipids
hydrophilic region and 2 FA derived hydrophobic tails like phospholipids
504
choelterol
synthesis of steroids
occupies space between phospholpids, increasing fluidity at lower temperatures and at higher temperatures, decreases fluidity by limiting movement of the membrane
505
waxes
```
hydrophobic to the max
long chain FA and alcohol
high melting point
stabilty adn regidity
waterproof
```
506
transmembrane proteins
through teh bilayer completely
507
embedded proteins
only one side of the ecm
508
transmembrane and embedeed proteins are considered
integral proteins
509
gap junctions
rapid exchange of ions and other small molecules between adjacent cells
510
tight junctions
prevent paracellular transport, but can do intracellular transport
511
desmoses and hemidesmosomes
anchor layers of epithelial tissue together
512
cell adhesion molecules
proteins that allow cells to recognize each other andcontribute to proper cell differentiation between cells commmunciation
513
osmotic pressure
colligative property, pressure applied to a pure solvent to prevent osmosis and is used to express the concentration of the solution
"sucking" pressure
514
passive transport
does not require energy because the molecule is moving down its concentration gradient from an area of higher concentration to an area with lower concentration
515
simple diffusion
does not require a transporter. small non polar molecules passively move from high to low
516
membrane receptor is most likely to be
a transmembrane protein with catalytic activity
517
inner mitochondrial membrane
lacks cholesterol which is unique
| impeccable
518
out mitochonridral membrane is
permeabe
519
Nerst equation
E= 61.5/z log (ion out/ion in)
z= charge of ion
520
chemical digestion of lipids occur in
small intestine, and facility by bile, pancreatic lipase, colipiase, cholesterol esterase
521
digested lipids form
micelles for absorption
522
short FA acids are absorbed across the intesnties
into the blood
523
long chain FA are absorbed as micelles and assembled into
chyomicrons for release int eh lymphatic system
524
emusilficaion
mixing og 2 immisible liuids
fat and water
create a surface area of the lipid for greater enzymatic interaction and processing
525
bile
is secreted by teh liver adn stored in the gallbladder
526
lipase
hydrolyze the liquid components of FA
527
micelles
clusters of amphipathic Lipids that are soluable in the lumen of the stomach
528
although human adipose tissue does not respond directly to glucagon
a fall in insulin levels activates HSL that hydrolyze triglycerides, yielding FA and glycerol
release glycerol Is transported to teh liver for glycolysis or gluconeogenesis
ADIPOSE TISSUE
529
LPL
metabolism of chylomicrons and VLDL
| release free FA from triglycerides in LIPOPROTEINS
530
chylomicrons
transport machinery for dietary triacylglycerol molecules and transported via the lymphatic system
531
VLDL
transports newly synthesized triacylglycerides mc from the liver to peripheral tissues int eh blood stream
532
LDL
cholesteral transport for tissues
533
HDL
cholesterol recovery- cleaning up excess cholesterol from blood vessels for excretion
534
lipoproteins
lipids can travel in blood
can be LDL, chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, HDL
all base don density
535
apoplipoproteins
receptor molecules involved with sigalling
536
cholesteral may be obtained through diet
or through de novo by acetyl COA and ATP in the liver
537
FA ARE synheized in the cytoplasm from actyl COA
transported out of the mitochondria
involves activation, bond formation, reduction, dehydration and reduction again
done in the liver
538
FA oxidation occurs in teh
mitochondria
539
Beta oxidation
uses cycles of oxidation, hydration, oxidation and cleavage
reverses the process of FA synthesis by oxidizing and releasing (rather than reducing and linking ) acetyl COA
each step reduces NAD+ and FAD to produce NADH and FADH2. these are oxidized in teh ETC and produce ATP
acetyl COA enters the citric acid cycle, stimulates glucneogenesis since it cannot be glucose, by activating pyruvate
540
following a large meal
acetyl COA accumulates in mitochondria and that partners with oxaloacetate at the start of citric acid cycle.
541
catabolism
breakdown
542
liver does
glucose to FA to TAG to VLDL to lumpathatic system
543
ketone bodies
form during long starvation states due to excess acetyl COA in the liver
544
ketolysis
regenerates acetyl COA for use as an energy supply in tissue
breakdown of keton ebodies to acetyl COA for energy
545
beta oxidation in essence is when we oxidized fat to produce
ATP
546
everytime we go through a round to beta oxidation, we lose how may C
2, and create 1 NADH, 1 FADH2 and 1 acetyl COA molecule which are used to fuel the ETC to create ATP
and acetyl COD goes to Krebs cycle (which then goes to ETC)
FA broken down (catabolized) to form acetyl COA, 2 less C FA and NADH and FADH2
547
changes in enthalpy in a closed biological system are equal to changes in
internal energy, which is equal to heat exchange within the enviorment
548
no work is performed in a closed biological system because
P and V remain constant (and so enthalpy and heat exchange (Q) is equal)
549
entrophy
measure of energy dispersion
550
physiological conditins are less than
standard conditiosn
551
internal energy
sum of all teh different interactions between adn within all atoms in a system- vibration, rotation, motion
552
the role of ATP
energy molecule
high energy phsophate bonds that are stabilized upon hydrolysis by resonance, ionization or loss of charge repulsion
can be a phosphate donor (phosphoric group transfers)
553
ATP proides about
30 kg/mol of energy
554
ATP hydrolysis occurs in teh context of
coupled reactions
| movement of NA and K across electrochemical gradient requires energy which is harnessed by hydrolysis of ATP
555
many oxidation reduction reactions involve electron carriers to
trnsport high energy electrons
556
electron carriers
can be soluable or membrane bound
NADH, FADH2
used to ETC
557
flavorpoteins
electron carriers
558
equilibrium is an undesired state for most biochemical reactions because
organisms need to harness free energy to survive
559
anabolism
synthesis of biochemical moleculed
560
major targets of insulin
liver, muscle and adipose tissue
561
insulin promotes
glycogen synthesis in the liver and muscle and then after filled, converts excess glucose to FA and trgylcerices in adipose tissue
562
in the postabsorptive/fasting state
glycogen degradation and the release of glucose into the blood are stimulated and so is gluconeogeneiss (making glucose)
FA and AA are exerted by teh decrease in insulin to help with gluconeogeneies
563
in the prolonged fasting state
gluconeogensis is relied on as glycogen storages are depleted
lipolysis can occur, resulting in a lot of acetyl COA that is used to make ketone bodies which lead ot muscles using FA for energy
564
water soluable peptide hormone
insulin
565
insulin
secrete day beta cells int eh pancreas
uptake and stage of glucose
facilitated transport mechanisms uptake glucose in muscle and adipose tisue
566
glucose uptake is not affected by insulin
kidney, nervous, RBC
567
metabolism
s the chemical reactions in the body's cells that change food into energy.
568
insulin (as well as carb metabolism) as influences
lipid adn protein metabolism by increasing aa uptake and therefore levels of protein synthesis adn decreasing breakdown
also increases trigylceral synthesis in adipose cells and acetyl COA
decreases ketone body formation
569
glucagon
peptide hormone secreted by alpha cells in pancreas
increases liver glycogenolysis
increases blood glucose in respond to low glucose and high aa level
570
glycogenesis
is the process of storing excess glucose for use by the body at a later time.
571
Glycogenolysis o
ccurs when the body, which prefers glucose as an energy source, needs energy. The glycogen previously stored by the liver is broken down to glucose and dispersed throughout the body.
572
glucocorticooids
from the adrenal core are resposible for fight or flith
```
glucose rapidly mobilized from liver to fuel activity like contracting muscled
cortisol excreted (steroid)
```
573
cortisol
promotes the mobilization of energy stores though teh degradation and increased delivery of aa and increased lipolysis
elevates blood glucose levels, increases glucose (esp for brain so may decrease glucose for muscle sand fat)
574
catecholamines
secreted by the adnreal medulla and include epi and fro
| increase activity of liver and muscle glycogenolysis (decrease in glycogen) and increase adrenaline rush
575
thyroid hormones
kept relatively contant with regards to metabolism.
576
ketones are synthesized with
excess FA are oxidized
577
liver roles
maintain constant level of blood glucose adn synthesized ketones
578
after a meal, glucose concentrations in blood is elevated, the liver...
exytracts the excess glucose and uses it to replenish its glycogen stores.
any glucose remaining in teh liver is then converted to acetyl COA and used for FA synthesis
579
increase in insulin after a meal stimulates
glycogen and FA synthesis in teh liver
580
in a well fed state, liver derives most of the energy from oxidation of excess aa
between meals and prolonged tasing glucose is released intone hblood
581
equation
delta G = delta G circle + RT lnQ
| Q- products over reactants
582
the ability to exist in both a oxidized and reduced state is
electron carriers
583
prolonged fasting leads the brain to relay on
ketone bodies
584
active skeltal muscles uses
creatine phosphate and glycogen to maintain energy, as resting skeletal muscle uses insulin for glucose uptake
585
leptin
decrease appetite by inhibiting the production of orexin (alertness)
586
energy
systems ability to do work
587
kinetic energy
energy of motion
K=1/2 mv^2
in joules
kg x m^2/s^2
588
if the speed doubles
KE will quandrule assuming the mass is constant
589
kg to g:
1 kg: 1000 g
590
potential energy
energy that is associated with a given objects position in space
potential to do work
591
gravitational PE
depends on an objects position with respect to some level
PE=mgh
g- acceraltion due to graviy (10)
592
elasti cpotential nergy
U=1/2kx^2
k- spring constant (stiffness)
x- displacement
593
total mechanical energy
PE + KE
594
firts law of thermodynamics
conservation of mechanical energy- energy is not created or destroyed but transferred
595
if the force is conservative it
any round trip path
any path between 2 points
if the change in energy aroudn any round trip is 0 or if the energy is equal when changed
596
conservative forces
delta E= delt PE + delta KE = 0
597
nonconservative forces
friction, reistsnace than change in total mechanical= delta PE + delta KE = WORK
598
work =
PE + KE
599
work define
Joules
| process by whcih energy is transferred from one system to another
600
energy is transfered through work when something exerts force on or against something as demonstrated by
work= F x d cos theta
| d- displacement
601
when gas expands, volume increases by b force
and work is posiive
602
work can be found by looking at the PV graph
under the curve
603
if volume is contant
no work is done
| but if pressure is consatntm work is still done
604
work equals
Pressure x delta volume
605
power
rate at which energy is transferred from one system to anther
P= W/t= delta E/t
Watt (J/s)
606
work
Kf-Ki (delta Ke)
607
Force equals
mg
608
F=ma
yes
609
he epithelial cells that line the gastrointestinal tract are typically highly proliferative
yes
610
phosphodiester bonds
phosphodiester bonds link the 3ʹ carbon atom of one deoxyribose and the 5ʹ carbon atom of another deoxyribose within the DNA molecules.
611
purine
2 rings!
612
pyridimidine
1 ring
613
Cysteine has a
sulhydryl group
| S-H
614
example of isoelectric point
Wnt proteins are a family of secretory proteins with isoelectric points around 9, implying that they are positively charged at physiological pH.
615
Ubiquitination
targets a protein for degradation by a proteasome.
616
transmembrane domains and residue state
transmembrane domains and, thus, cross the phospholipid bilayer. As a result, these domains are most likely to have a high proportion of hydrophobic residues. Hydrophobic residues are nonpolar.
617
western blot
A western blot is a laboratory method used to detect specific protein molecules from among a mixture of proteins.
posttranslational modification of proteins such as histone acetylation is analyzed by Western blotting
618
southern blot
Southern blotting is done to detect DNA sequences in NA sequences
619
northern blot
Nrthern blotting is performed to detect RNA sequence in NA
620
digestion pathway
lbood from the small intestine is transported first to the liver, which regulates nutrient distribution and removes toxins from the blood. I
621
fusion of the viral membrane with the host cell membrane.
endocytotsis as mediated by endosomes
622
proteases
Proteases function to digest proteins into smaller fragments.
623
in a protein reading frame
amino terminus to the carboxyl terminal (where nucloetides are added)
624
Under anaerobic conditions,
2 moles of ATP are produced from each mole of glucose
625
per ATP molecule there is
Since there are 6 × 1023 molecules per mole,
626
brain is part of the central nervous system, which is derived from
ectoderm
627
lysosomes
membrane-bound organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes activated by a low pH. These enzymes are capable of degrading many kinds of biomolecules.
628
microtubules that originate in and radiate from the:
centrosomes
629
kinetochores
ehere sindles attach to in cell division
630
T-cell receptors on these cells bind specifically to:
viral antigens presented on the surface of virus-infected cells.
631
Where in the human male reproductive system do the gametes become motile and capable of fertilization?
epiydmiysis
632
educing agent would eliminate any disulfide bridges
so think about cys and met
| break down bigger mc into smaller ones
633
E = hf =
= hc/λ
634
kcat equation
kcat = Vmax/[E] (enzyme concentration is E)
v maz is rate
635
Absorption of ultraviolet light by organic molecules always results in what process?
.Excitation of bound electrons
636
column chrom what elutes first
NONPOLAR ELUTES FIRST
| n-Pentane → 2-butanone → n-butanol → propanoic acid
637
longer wavelengths, and hence lower energy, th
yes
638
when kinases transfer phosphate in ATP they use the
gamma subunit
639
WHEN YOU ARE PHOSPHORLYATED YOU HAVE A
NGETAIVE CHARGE
640
curves have a sigmoidal shape, which is indicative of
cooperative processes
641
a higher melting temperature is indicative of a more stable protein,
s more energy is needed to unfold the protein.
642
G–C base pairs form stronger π-stacking interactions than A–T base pairs, thereby creating the most thermal stability.
e increased melting temperature of DNA rich in GC content
643
storage lipids?
think trigylcerides
| B.Three fatty acids ester-linked to a single glycerol
644
cathode
reduced and negative
645
anode
oxidied and positive
646
Heisenberg’s principle.
uncertanity
| the position and the velocity of an object cannot both be measured exactly, at the same time, even in theory.
647
catalusts increase the
amount of product produced per unit time.
648
equilibrium constant for the reaction is very large (much greater than 1).
This necessarily means that ΔG° is negative and the reaction is spontaneou
649
ionization enrgy increases as you move
from L to R
650
mass percent
The essential formula for mass percent of a compound is mass percent = (mass of chemical÷total mass of compound) x 100. Y
651
henderson hassbualch
pH = pKa + log([base]/[acid])
652
battery power resistant circuit
hemical energy of the battery elements is used as electrical energy to set the charge carriers in motion through the resistor, where they experience drag from the crystal lattice of the resistive conductor and dissipate their energy as heat from the resistor.
653
secondary proteins tructure
secondary structure is represented by repeated patterns of hydrogen bonds between the backbone amide protons and carbonyl oxygen atoms
654
work is not dependent on
speed
655
ow-twitch fibers are adapted for aerobic exercise which suggests they are likely, relative to fast-twitch fibers, to have increased
capillary density, larger numbers of mitochondria, and higher levels of oxygen-binding proteins.
656
nadotropin-releasing hormone regulates
pituitary gonadotropin (luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone) secretion. Thus, if gonadotropin-releasing hormone is not able to regulate luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone secretion from the pituitary, the reproductive axis will remain quiescent
657
helicase
catalyzes the unwinding and separation of the parental DNA strands, so that each can be replicated.
658
Ligase
DNA ligase I connects the Okazaki fragments,
659
primases
is an enzyme that synthesizes short RNA sequences called primers. ... Primase functions by synthesizing short RNA sequences that are complementary to a single-stranded piece of DNA, which serves as its template.
660
Topoisomerase
the unwinding or rewinding DNA
emoves positive and negative supercoils formed during the unwinding process of DNA
661
proteases
inolve hydrolyases, or breaking of bigger molecules into small ermolcules through emitting water
662
apoptotic signaling correlates to
growth arrest
663
cancer occurs not because "cell death" bu becauses
we cant KILL cells (apoptosis)
664
eurkayroteic genes do not have
operons!! !only prok
665
prok operon gene
a single mRNA transcribed from a single promoter sequence upstream of the operon.
666
The Na+K+ ATPase is an example of P
PRIMARy active transport
| which is USIN ATP
667
secondary active transport
uses other energy molecules to transport substances across a memraben
668
Na+K+ ATPase transports
3 Na+ outside of the cell and 2 K+ inside of the cell per molecule of ATP hydrolyzed.
669
tumor cells are
somatic (cant be passed down)
670
acetyltion
Adding an acetyl group to the tail (acetylation) neutralises the charge, making DNA less tightly coiled and increasing transcription
671
methylation
dding a methyl group to the tail (methylation) maintains the positive charge, making DNA more coiled and reducing transcription.
672
prolonged starvation means the formation of
ketone bodies, which by by sustained fatty acid oxidation.
673
The adrenal medulla is part of which branch(es) of the peripheral nervous system?
sympathetic
674
Allosteric inhibition of an enzyme involves which of the following events?
Binding of an inhibitor to a site other than the substrate binding site
675
the Krebs cycle produces both ATP and NADH but not NAD+. ATP directly supplies energy for many cellular processes, such as muscle contraction, and NADH, which is used in the electron transport chain.
energy for Krebs and ETC
676
1/8
.12
677
pressure adn concenrtation
so you know that pressure and volume are inversely proportion (as P increases, V decreases). SO look at PV=NRT, as pressure increases, n (concentration) will increase, so they are directly proprtional and therefore you cannot use the equation P1M1=P2M2 because thats nto an eqution because that says they are inverses which they are not. SO you must look at the difference between pressures and then correlate that to the difference in concenration
678
hypoxia on energy metabolism
n hypoxia, glycolysis is activated while mitochondrial functions (oxidative phosphorylation) are attenuated. This metabolic reprogramming leads to increased concentration of NADH inside the cell. For glycolysis to proceed, NADH must be converted back to NAD+ through lactic fermentation.
679
phosphoglucose isomerase
involved in glycolysis
680
restriction enzymes
CCCGGG within the HIF binding sequence is palindromic. Therefore, only a restriction enzyme that recognizes a four-base sequence or a six-base sequence can recognize this sequence within the HIF binding sequence.
681
succinate dehydrogenase
which is also known as Complex II, in the electron transport chain.
682
IMPRINTED GENes
Imprinted genes are genes whose expression is determined by the parent that contributed them.
683
how RNA viruses replicate themsleves
xRNA viruses require a type of transcriptase (reverse transcriptase) to replicate themselves.
684
optimum temp for enzymes
the optimum temperature for enzymes is normally 37 °C
685
Mucous secretions in the respiratory tract inhibit microbial infections.
epithelial cells
686
vili in SI
Villi atrophy results in a decrease in the surface area of the small intestine, leading to a decrease in nutrient absorption.
687
reduced plasma proteins in the blood
large plasma proteins, such as albumin, in the blood increase the osmotic pressure of the blood, which in turn, increases the return of fluid to the circulatory system from the body tissues. Therefore, with malnutrition, the osmotic pressure of the blood would decrease resulting in an increase of fluid in the body tissues.
688
ujabsobred fats affect in teh Large intensine
excess of unabsorbed fats in the intestines inhibits normal water and electrolyte absorption, resulting in increased osmotic pressure and diarrhea.
689
to increase BLOOD calcium levels
herefore, to increase calcium levels in the blood, osteoblast activity should be decreased and osteoclast activity should be increased to release stored calcium from the bone to the bloodstream.
690
one characteristic that distinguishes eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells is that eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria
have ribosomes, cell wall and sexual reproduction in common
691
cytochrome C function
Cytochrome P450 acts as monooxygenases, where an oxygen atom is inserted into a substrate (the drug of interest), thereby resulting in the oxidation of the substrate.
692
phsphorlyation involves removing the H of the OH in tyrosine and attaching phosphate there with the oxugen
During phosphorylation of tyrosine, the hydrogen atom of a hydroxyl group on the amino acid is removed, thereby allowing the remaining oxygen to nucleophilically attack the phosphorous atom of a phosphate group from a high energy carrier such as ATP.
693
TF main characterisitc
contain a DNA binding domain.
694
fatty acid oxidation takes place in
mitochondria
695
affinity for O2 when muscles are contracting is going to decrease for hemoglobin and 02 in muscle tissue (let go of 02)
during prolonged execise, pH decreases because lactate acid formation. Co2 is going to go into the plasma pH and decrease pH as carbonic acid.
696
Henry’s Law
kH relates the solubility of a gas S to the pressure of that gas Pg above the solution and is written as S = kH•P
needs partial pressure and concentration
697
grehin adn obses
Obese individuals have more energy stores than lean individual. For this reason, the levels of ghrelin, which increases appetite, are lower in obese individuals.
698
mRNA is composed of
nucleotides, not amino acids!!
699
gianitsm
gigantism does NOT mean obesity or increase in fat cells. Gigantism is due to TOO MUCH growth hormone, which causes growth of the bones and muscles, not fat cells
700
protein translation
uring protein translation, aminoacyl transferase functions to transfer the tRNA originally bound at the A (amino acid) site to the P (peptide) site and later to the E (exit) site of the ribosome.
701
exercise
musclee cell differentiation
702
competetivion inhibitor pot
intersect on y axis
703
RT-PCR
RT-PCR is a molecular technique that measures mRNA levels of specific protein.
transcriptopmal control
704
southern blot
Southern blot is a technique that analyzes genomic DNA and cannot be used to measure the transcriptional regulation of a gene.
705
quanitivative PCR
Quantitative PCR is a technique that measures the levels of DNA, not mRNA,
706
western blot
Western blot is a technique that measures the translational levels of a protein, not the transcriptional regulation of a gene.
707
native PAGE
Native PAGE is used to separate proteins based on their electrophoretic mobility, relying on length, conformation, and charge.
708
gel filtation chrom
Gel filtration chromatography separates protein only on the basis of their size.
709
ion exchange chrom
Ion exchange chromatography allows separation of the molecules based on their charge.
710
x chrom
The inactivate X chromosome is one of the last chromosomes to replicate.
711
more bile is released
the smooth muscles around the gall bladder will have to contract, and the hepatopancreatic sphincter will have to relax.
712
xetra water is normally excreted through
skin and lungs
713
higher vs. lower osmolarity
igher osmolality means you have more particles in your serum. Lower osmolality means the particles are more diluted.
714
HIV contains reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that converts the viral genome from:
RNA into DNA.
715
phoshoglyerol
he addition of this group (phosphoglycerol) adds a negative charge to pilin and thus decreases its isoelectric point.
716
An amber codon is a stop codon
fact
717
nondisjunction
Non-disjunction occurs when sister chromatids fail to separate during cell division.
718
glycolysis
(Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi --> 2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + 2 H2O).
719
krebs cycle
10 NADH , 2 FADH2 and 2 ATP
720
oxidative phosphorylation
ETC! the synthesis of ATP by phosphorylation of ADP for which energy is obtained by electron transport and which takes place in the mitochondria during aerobic respiration.
721
glycolysis occurs inthe
cytoplasm
722
krebs cycle occurs in
mito matrix
723
ETC occurs in
mitochondria
724
somatic
not during meiossi
725
S phase
DNA replication occurs
726
lactate fermentation occurs in teh
cytoplasm
727
ribosomal subunits of
40S and 60S
728
during contraction
thick and thin filaments remaint eh same relaive size, overlappig each other
729
neurlation
induction of the ectoderm to differentiate into the nervous system
730
increasing cholesterol
decreases membrane fluidity (which is why lipid rafts have a high concentration of chol)
731
phosphptidylcholine
type of phospholipids
732
peptide bonds form with
condensation (leaving as water)
733
autoimmune is not
inherited
734
glactose only differs from glucose in 1 steroecenter
so they are epimers
735
the binding of eukaryote RNA polymerase requires multiple TF
yes
736
prok have transcriptiona dn translation
at the same time
737
eukaryote have splicing
prok do not
738
both euk and prok require DNA protein interaction for
RNA polymeras
739
blastula
hollow ball with fluid center
740
reverse transciption
done by virsues, like HIV
