psych definitions Flashcards
Absolute poverty
Deprivation of basic human needs including access to food, water, shelter, safety. Was set as $1.25/day in 2005 by the World Bank.
Acquisition
The phase of conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus and the animal is learning to give a condi-tioned response.
conditioned stimulus- bell
unconditioned stimulis- food
conditioned response- salivate
Adrenal medulla
Gland just above the kidneys that releases: epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, enkephalin
Aggression
Acts carried out either with an intention to cause harm or to increase rela-tive social dominance.
Altruism
Acting for the good of others at one’s own expense and with no expecta-tion of benefit.
Alzheimer’s disease
Most common form of dementia. No cure, develops with age and worsens as it progresses, eventually fatal. Starts with simple absent-mindedness, then deepening confusion and eventual debilitating cognitive deficits.
Anterior pituitary
Gland that releases: growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, adre-nocoricotropic hormone, beta-endorphin, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin
Anxiety disorders
Excessive anxiety or fear. Includes Generalized anxiety disorder, Phobias, Panic, OCD, PTSD
Assimilation
Process of one culture or language beginning to resemble that of another group.
Attachment theory
Study of long-term relationships, especially between infants and their pri-mary caregiver. Includes several attachment patterns: secure, anxious, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized
Attitudes, components
A positive or negative feeling towards something or someone. Consists of Emotion (I like wine); Behavior (I will drink wine if offered); Cognition (I know red wine is good for my heart)
Attraction
A process between two people which draws them together and leads to friend-ship and romance.
Attribution theory
A process of explaining what happens by attributing causes to the environ-ment, or attributing certain thoughts or feelings to other people.
Auditory pathway
Outer ear, auditory canal, tympanic membrane, middle ear (malleus, incus, stapes), inner ear (cochlea), Organ of Corti, Vestibulocochlear nerve, thalamus, temporal lobe
Avoidance learning
A behavior prevents a negative stimulus (e.g. pressing a lever before the noise starts keeps it silent)
Behaviorist perspective of personality
Personality is a learning process of operant conditioning controlled by the environment. People have response tendencies which create behav-ior patterns. Childhood not the crucial period as the environment-based learning continues through life.
Biases
Cognitive or motivational forces that result in repeated, systematic devia-tions from rational judgment. (e.g. availability heuristic, congruence bias, outcome bias)
Biological perspective of personality
Personality reflects the functioning of physiological processes in the brain. Influenced by hormone levels, neurotransmitter levels, size and development of various brain structures. Associated with Eysenck’s Three Factor Model
Eysenck’s theory of personality is based on three dimensions: introversion vs. extroversion, neuroticism vs. stability, and psychoticism vs. socialization.
Body dysmorphic disorder
Somatoform disorder in which the patient has excessive concern with a perceived defect or deficiency in their body.
Brain study methods
Electrophysiology (EEG), Neuroimaging (PET, fMRI), Effects of brain damage (strokes)
EEG: a test that detects abnormalities in your brain waves, or in the electrical activity of your brain. During the procedure, electrodes consisting of small metal discs with thin wires are pasted onto your scalp. The electrodes detect tiny electrical charges that result from the activity of your brain cells
PET: e scan uses a special dye containing radioactive tracers. These tracers are either swallowed, inhaled, or injected into a vein in your arm depending on what part of the body is being examined- changes in metabolic conditions
fMRI: An fMRI scan uses the same technology as an MRI scan. … By showing the blood flow it will display which parts of the brain are being stimulated.
MRI: RI scans image anatomical structure whereas FMRI image metabolic function. Thus, the images generated by MRI scans are like three dimensional pictures of anatomic structure.
Cat: uses a series of X-rays and a computer to produce a 3D image of soft tissues and bones.
Brainstem
Part of the CNS that connects the spinal cord to the brain. Medulla obl-ongata, pons, and midbrain (mesencephalon). Regulates the CNS, controls sleep cycle, heart rate, breathing, eating, etc.
Bystander effect
The more individuals are present, the less likely someone will offer help.
Cannon-Bard theory
Emotional expression is hypothalamus, emotional feeling is dorsal thala-mus. Physiological arousale and subjective feeling are independent and simultaneous.
Central route processing
A method of shaping attitudes that asks the audience to think more, to analyze the content of the message. Depends on the cognitive ability and motivation of the audience.
Cerebellum
Coordination, precision, timing of movement (gait, posture, complex tasks like typing or playing the piano)
Cerebrum
Uppermost part of the brain including the cerebral cortex (front lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe) and subcortical structures (hip-pocampus, basal ganglia, olfactory bulb)
Circadian rhythm
A built-in rhythm of an organism that is roughly 24hrs long but can adjust to external stimuli. Present in plants, animals, fungi, bacteria.
Classical conditioning
A form of learning that pairs neutral stimuli with natural stimuli in which the learner is able to pair this neutral stimuli with the response normally given to the natural stimuli (ring a bell and a dog salivates)
Cognitive dissonance
Mental discomfort when someone holds two contradictory beliefs at once.
Cognitive theories
Motivation is based on cognitive process. For example, to reduce cognitive of motivation dissonance, or in goal-setting theory to reach a particular end state.
Concrete operational stage
Piaget Stage 3: 7-11 yrs. Child can solve problems in a logical fashion. Can begin to understand induction, but still have trouble with deduction.
Conditional reinforcement
A stimulus that an organism learns to desire due to its pairing with another reinforcer (e.g. money or a clicker noise in dog training)
Conditioned response
A response to a conditioned stimulus which usually mimics an uncondi-tioned response. (e.g. salivating in response to food is an unconditioned response; salivating in response to a bell is a conditioned response.)
Conditioned stimuli
A neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and comes to elicit the response. (e.g. the bell before the food)
Conflict theory
A variety of approaches to sociology that focus on inequality between social groups and the power differentials that exist between them. Most strongly associated with Karl Marx.
Conformity
Matching behavior to social norms as a result of direct or unconscious pressure. Conforming behavior occurs both in groups and while alone.
Consciousness altering drugs
Drugs that cross the blood-brain barrier to have an effect on the central nervous system. Common categories: anxiolytics, euphoriants, stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens
Conversion disorder
Somatoform disorder in which a patient suffers numbness, blindness or paralysis with no identifiable medical cause.
Cultural capital
Non-economic assets that provide value to an individual and that can pro-mote social mobility (e.g. education, dress, attractiveness, humor)
Cultural relativism
An attempt to study societies while minimizing ethnocentric bias.
Deindividuation
When an individual loses a sense of self-awareness when in a group.
Demographic shift
The increase in the median age of a country due to rising life expectancy and/ or reduced birth rate. Has happened in nearly every country in the world as it becomes more economically developed.
Depression
A low mood that leaves subject feeling sad, hopeless, worried. Characterized by disruptions to sleep and eating and loss of pleasure.
Deviance
Actions that violate social norms, either explicit rules (e.g. committing a crime) or informal mores (e.g. being atheist in a religious society).
Diencephalon
Region of embryonic neural tube that leads to the thalamus, subthalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus.
Discrimination
When an animal learns to responsed to one conditioned stimulus but gives either a different response or no response at all to a slightly different stimulus.
Dissociative disorders
Mental disorders involving breakdown in memory, awareness and identity. Includes dissociative identity disorder (formerly multiple personality disor-der), dissociative amnesia, and depersonalization disorder
Divided attention
The ability of the brain to perform multiple tasks at once (such as driving a car and talking on the phone). The brain has limited attention resources and as multiple tasks are added, especially in the same modality (listening to the radio and listening to a conversation), performance drops.
Dramaturgical approach
A perspective on sociology that focuses on the context of human behavior rather than the causes, viewing everyday social interactions as a form of per-formance in which people are playing roles.
Drive reduction theory
Motivation results from an organism’s desire to reduce a drive (hunger, thirst, sex)
Elaboration likelihood model
A process of persuasion in which attitudes are influenced both by high elaboration factors (e.g. evaluating and processing information) and low elaboration ones (e.g. the attractiveness of the person making the appeal).
Emotion components
Cognition: evaluation of events, Physiology: bodily responses, Motivation: motor responses an emotion generates, Expression: facial and vocal signals of the feeling, Feelings: subjective experience of the emotion.
Endocrine organs
Hypothalamus, Pineal Gland, Pituitary, Thyroid, Adrenal Medulla, Testes, Ovaries
Environmental justice
The effort to fairly distribute environmental benefits (clean water, park-land) and environmental burdens (industrial facilities, pollution) across all of society.
Erikson stages of psychosocial identity development
0-2 yrs, Hopes, Trust vs. Mistrust; 2-4 yrs, Will, Autonomy vs. Shame; 4-5 yrs, Purpose, Initiative vs. Guilt; 5-12 yrs; Competence, Industry vs. Inferiority; 13-19 yrs, Fidelity, Identity vs. Role Confusion; 20-39, Love, Intimacy vs. Isolation; 40-64 yrs, Care, Generativity vs. Stagnation; 65-death, Wisdom, Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Escape learning
A behavior stops a negative stimulus (e.g. silencing an obnoxious noise to encourage a lever press)
Ethnocentrism
The process of judging another culture by the values and standards of your own culture.
Extinction
When the conditioned stimulus stops generating a conditioned response.
Eysenck’s three factor model
Model of personality based on activity of reticular formation and lim-bic system. Personality made up of 1. Extraversion 2. Neuroticism 3. Psychoticism.
Feature detection
Specialized nerve cells in the brain respond to particular features such as edges, angles, or movement. These feature detection neurons fire in response to images that have specific characteristics.
Fertility
The average number of expected children born to a woman assuming that the woman will survive from birth to the end of her reproductive life.
Fixed interval
Reinforcement after the first response, after a fixed time has elapsed (e.g. after a food pellet is given, no food pellets will be dispensed for 5 minutes. After 5 minutes, the first lever press will get a food pellet)
Fixed ratio
Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses (e.g. a food pellet after every 5 lever presses)
Foot in the door phenomenon
Getting someone to agree to a small request increases the likelihood they will then agree to a much larger one.
Formal operational stage
Piaget Stage 4: Age 11 onwards. Can do hypothetical and ede rea-soning and think about abstract concepts.
Freud stages of psychosexual identity development
Oral: 0-1yr, oral fixation is a passive immature personality > Anal: 1-3yr, anal fixation is obsessively neat/organized personality > Phallic: 3-6yr, fixation can be oedipus complex > Latency: 6-12yr, fixation leads to sexual unfulfillment > Genital: puberty-death, fixation leads to frigidity, impotence
Front stage vs. back stage
Front stage: how a person behaves when an audience is present, adhering to certain conventions for the audience; Back stage: how a person behaves when no audience is present
Functionalism
A large-scale sociological approach that analyzes particular social struc-tures and functions that influence society as a whole.
Fundamental attribution error
Overvaluing a personality-based explanation rather than environmental explanations. For example, explaining that members of an ethnic group must be poor because they are all lazy, rather than environmental impedi-ments to their ability to get out of poverty.
Generalization
When a new stimulus that is similar to a conditioned stimulus comes to generate the same or similar response.
Gestalt principles
Laws of perceptual organization that guide the brain in making a whole out of sensory parts.
Globalization
Interconnection and interdependence across national boundaries, involv-ing the exchange of culture, ideas, goods, etc.
Group polarization
Groups tend to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial atti-tudes of the individual members.
Groupthink
A breakdown in decision making in which groups value coherence and loy-alty to the in group over critical analysis of the decisions.
Hair cells
Sensory receptors in the organ of Corti on the basilar membrane. Located in the cochlea of the inner ear. The hairs detect sound as vibrations in the tectorial membrane.
Heuristics in problem solving
A quick way to solve a problem using experience when a full exhaustive search would be impossible. Generates results that may not be the best. (e.g. rule of thumb, educated guess, intuition, common sense, stereotypes)
Humanistic perspective on personality
Personality develops as a person grows psychologically. Emphasizes free will and self-actualization. Associated with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Hypnosis
A mental state in which the subject is focused intensely on particular thought or memory while being more open to suggestion.
Hypothalamus
Portion of the brain connected to the endocrine system. Produces: Dopamine, Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone, Thyrotropin-releasing hormone, Somatostatin, Gonadotropin-releasing hormone, Corticotropin-releasing hormone, Oxytocin, Vasopressin
Identity
A person’s sense of and expression of their group affiliations and individuality.
Incentive theory
Motivation is based on external incentives rather than internal drives. People’s varying behaviors result from the different incentives in their envi-ronment and the differing values they place on those incentives.
Incidence rate
Total number of newly appearing cases of a disease per unit time, usually given as a proportion (e.g. 5 per 1,000, or 0.045%, or 1 in 100,000)
Inclusive fitness
The ability of an organism to increase its fitness by behaving altruistically to support group members that share its genes. (e.g. a worker honey bee surrenders any possibility of reproducing itself but supporting the hive increases inclusive fitness and the reproduction of its genes through the queen)
Individual discrimination
Treatment of one individual by another in a way that is worse than a nor-mal social interaction owing to some group affiliation. (e.g. charging a higher rate for a cleaning service for a customer in an ethnic minority because “they’re messier people”)
Ingroup
Any group that a person psychologically identifies as their own.
Innate behaviors
Instinctive behavior that occurs in the absence of any learning or experi-ence. Can be simple or fairly complex behaviors.
Institutional discrimination
Unjust discriminatory treatment of a group by formal organizations such as governments, public institutions, and corporations. Typically codified into set rules. (e.g. racial segregation laws)
Intelligence
Many different definitions (one general ability vs. many different “types” of intelligence) that generally relate to problem-solving ability, abstract thinking, and ability to learn from experience.
Interactionist theory of language development
Language is acquired through social interaction with adults. Emphasizes the role of feedback and reinforcement. Requires modeling of adults.
Intuition in problem solving
The ability to have knowledge or solve a problem without rational infer-ence or reasoning. Subjects typically don’t know the process by which they have the intuitive judgment. Associated with the right brain.
James-Lange theory
Emotions start as physiological states in the body and emotions are reac-tions to those bodily responses.
Kinesthetic sense
Sense of the position of body parts relative to one another.
Kohlberg stages
Stages that represent an individual’s ability to reason through ethical and moral questions. Relate not to the outcome (decision made), but the process by which an individual thinks about ethical questions. Pre-conventional: obedience and punishment, self-interest > Conventional: conformity, authority obedience > Post-conventional: universal ethical principles
Korsakoff’s syndrome
Neurological disorder due to lack of thiamine (vitamin B1) associated with chronic alcoholism. Involves memory loss, invented memories, lack of insight, and apathy.
Language, brain areas
Wernicke’s area: temporal lobe, ability to comprehend speech; Broca’s area: frontal lobe, speech production
Learning theory of language development
Language is learned from the environment (not based on inherent biological systems) in some manner similar to operant conditioning. Various theo-ries about what that manner is.
Limbic system
Collection of brain structures involved with emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, smell. Includes hippocampus, amygdala, fornix, mam-millary body, etc.
Locus of control
The extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them.
Marginalization
The social exclusion in which individuals or groups are systematically barred from normal opportunities in a society (work, housing, health care, legal services)
Meditation
One of a number of practices meant to induce a mode of consciousness in which the person focuses on an aspect of awareness, emotion, or sense of well-being
Memory encoding
Process of turning sense information into information in the brain (memory) that can later be recalled (e.g. remember what something looks like)
Memory types
Topographic memory, flashbulb memory, declarative memory (explicit memory), procedural memory (implicit memory)
Meritocracy
Political philosophy that holds that power should accrue to individuals demonstrating merit as measured by achievement or intellectual talent.
Mirror neurons
Neurons that fire when an animal exhibits a behavior and when it observes another carrying out that same behavior, as if the observer were the one act-ing. Present in both motor and sensory cortical areas.
Modelling
A process of learning through imitation of others. “Modelling” can refer to the actions of the person demonstrating the behavior, or the behavior of the learner.
Mood disorders
Depression and bipolar disorder. Disturbance in a person’s underlying mood is the main feature of the disorder.
Morbidity
Number of people in ill health per unit time, usually given per 1000 peo-ple per year.
Mortality
Number of deaths per unit time, usually given per 1000 people per year.
Multiculturalism
Communities with multiple distinct cultures. Also the ideology that pro-motes diversity as opposed to assimilation (e.g. publishing official gov’t communications in multiple languages)
Nativist theory of language development
Language acquisition must be biologically dependent on the native capacity of the human brain (theories linked most commonly to Chomsky)
Need based theories of motivation
Most common: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: physiology, safety and security, love and friendship, self-esteem and achievement, self actualization.
Negative reinforcement
A stimulus withdrawn to increase a behavior (e.g. silencing an obnoxious noise to encourage pressing a lever)
Neural plasticity
Changes in neural pathways and synapses that occur in response to experi-ence. Can be a change on the level of a single cell or remapping entire chunks of the cortex.
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals used to send signals across a synapse between a neuron and the target cell. Include amino acids, monoamines, peptides, and others (ade-nosine, acetylcholine, nitric oxide, etc)
Neutral stimuli
A stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focus-ing attention (e.g. a noise made by a clicker in dog training)
Nociception
Sensation of pain triggered by mechanical, thermal, or chemical stimuli above a threshold.
Norms
Socially held beliefs about appropriate behavior.
Olfactory pathway
Nose, Olfactory Epithelium, Olfactory Receptor, Olfactory nerve (part of the CNS), Olfactory Bulb, Brain (Piriform Cortex, Amygdala)
Operant conditioning
Conditioning in which behaviors are shaped by their consequences (rather than their antecedents as in classical conditioning). It uses reinforcement and punishment to change behavior, whereas classical conditioning shapes reflexive behavior.
Ovaries
Sex organ of the female that releases: progesterone, estrogens (mainly estradiol), inhibin
Parallel processing
The ability of the brain to process multiple things at once, such as in vision where color, motion, shape, and depth are all processed simultaneously to help the brain identify visual stimulus.
Parkinson’s disease
Degenerative disease. Motor difficulties due to death of dopamine-gener-ating cells in the substantia nigra of the midbrain.
Peer pressure
A pressure to change attitudes, values, or behaviors to conform to group norms.
Peripheral route processing
A process of shaping attitudes that depend on the environmental charac-teristics of the message (attractiveness of the speaker, catchy slogan, seem-ing expertise). Useful when the idea is essentially weak or the audience unable or unwilling to work to evaluate the merits of the idea.
Personality disorders
Mental disorder involving an enduring set of behaviors or cognitions that cause distress or disability. Includes paranoid, antisocial, borderline, narcis-sistic, avoidant, obsessive-compulsive.
Pheromones
Chemical secreted or excreted by an animal to trigger a social response from others. Includes alarm, food, and sex pheromones.
Piaget’s stages
Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational
Pineal gland
Portion of the brain that secretes melatonin
Peripheral nervous system
Nerves and ganglia outside the brain/spinal cord. Divided into somatic and autonomic systems.
Positive Reinforcement
A stimulus delivered to increase a behavior (e.g. a food pellet to encourage pressing a lever)
Prejudice
Having a positive or negative view of a person or thing prior to experience with that person or thing. Typically towards people based on some group affiliation. Often unreasonable and difficult to change.
Preoperational stage
Piaget Stage 2: 2 – 7 yrs. Child can speak, imagine symbolically, but not carry out mental operations.
Prestige
A positive esteem of a person or group
Prevalence rate
Total number of people with a given disease at a given point in time, usu-ally given as a proportion (5 per 1,000, or 0.045%, or 1 in 100,000)
Primary reinforcement
A stimulus that an organism desires with no learning (e.g. food, water)
Privilege
A set of unearned advantages accruing to someone owing to membership in a group. (e.g. male privilege in China under the one-child policy resulted in infanticide of female offspring)
Psychological disorders, categories
Anxiety, Somatoform, Mood, Schizophrenia, Dissociative, Personality
Psychoanalytic perspective on personality
Personality is developed by early childhood experiences and influenced by the unconscious part of the mind. Freud said personality develops through psychosexual stages.
Punishment
A consequence that causes a behavior to occur less frequently.
Reference group y contrast.
A group against which an individual (or other group) is compared. It pro-vides benchmarks against which the traits of an individual can compare herself, either by comparison or b
Reflex arc
Neural pathway in which afferent nerve synapses with efferent nerve in the spinal cord, generating a response while the signal is still being sent up to the brain.
Relative poverty
Income below some proportion of the median income. Thus poverty is rel-ative to the society one is in.
Residential segregation
The physical separation of different groups into neighborhoods, typically along race, ethnic, or income criteria.
Role taking
3-6 yrs: Egocentric role taking, can’t distinguish own perspective from others > 6-8 yrs: Subjective role taking, child can tell that others will have different views based on different information >8-10 yrs: Self-reflective role taking, child understands that others have dif-ferent values > 10-12 yrs: Mutual role taking, child simultaneously considers his own view and differing views of others > 12+ yrs: Societal role taking, child now considers social and cultural effects on views
Schachter-Singer theory
Emotions depend on physiological arousal and cognitive label. People use their environment or experience to label why they feel the physiological stimulation they do.
Schizophrenia
Mental disorder involving delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, lack of emotion and lack of motivation.
Selective attention
The ability of the brain to focus on a single input and “tune out” other stimuli. “Cocktail Party Effect”.
Self-concept
The set of beliefs one has about who one is (gender roles, sexuality, racial identity, personal characteristics, etc.)
Self-efficacy
A belief in one’s own ability to achieve goals.
Self-esteem
The cognitive and emotional evaluation a person has of their own worth.
Self-fulfilling prophecy in stereotypes
A person’s behavior can change to fit a stereotype if the person believes it themselves. For example, a stereotype that Asians are good at math can lead an Asian student to work exceptionally hard to excel in a math class.
Sensitivity index
A measure of how easily a signal can be detected. Estimated as d’ = Hit Rate – False Alarm Rate
Sensorimotor stage
Piaget’s Stage 1: infants, toddlers. Knowledge through senses and manipu-lating objects.
Sensory adaptation
A form of neural adaptation in which the sensory system stops responding to a constant stimulus.
Shaping
Rewarding a series of small behaviors that are a part of the overall behav-ior desired in order to create larger behavior which would likely never occur on its own.
Signal detection theory
A mathematical theory for measuring how sensitive people are in spotting stimuli correctly and rejecting false signals correctly.
Sleep disorders
Medical disorder of sleep patterns. (e.g. insomnia, narcolepsy, night terrors, sleep apnea, sleepwalking, enuresis)
Social capital
The value of a social network. Collective or economic benefits that result from cooperation between people and groups.
Social cognitive perspective on personality
Personality is developed through observational learning, situational influences, cognitive processes. Focuses on self-efficacy.
Social cognitive theory
Some portion of people’s learning occurs not through direct behavior, but by observing the consequences of the behavior of others.
Social constructionism
A theory that people construct their sense of reality and meaning through interaction with others, most powerfully through language.
Social facilitation
The presence of other people will increase performance on familiar tasks but reduce performance on unfamiliar ones.
Social identity
The part of a person’s identity that comes from their sense of membership in some social group.
Social loafing
Phenomenon of individuals putting in less effort when working in groups.
Social reproduction
The process of transmitting social inequality to the next generation. Based on differences in financial capital, cultural capital, human capital, and social capital.
Social stratification
A hierarchy of classes of people based on differences in power or privi-lege. It carries from generation to generation, is present in all societies, and includes beliefs.
Socialization
The process of acquiring and transmitting cultural norms and customs, developing the social skills for a person to participate in society.
Somatoform disorders
Mental disorder that creates physical symptoms that cannot be explained by an actual medical condition. Includes Conversion, Somatization, Hypochondriasis, Body Dysmorphic Disorder, Pain Disorder
Somatosensation
Sensory system throughout the skin, muscles, bones, joints, etc. Processes proprioception, touch, thermoception, nociception.
Spontaneous recovery
After a behavior has extinguished, a conditioned stimulus may once again elicit a conditioned response after a rest period.
Stages of sleep
Stage 1: Drowsy sleep, transition from alpha to theta waves > Stage 2: Conscious awareness gone, theta waves > Stage 3: Slow-wave sleep / Deep sleep, delta waves > REM: dreaming, muscle paralysis
Stereotype threat
Anxiety that one will fulfill a negative stereotype causing decreased performance.
Stereotypes
An idea about a particular group of people which may or may not accu-rately reflect reality. Cognitive in nature. (as opposed to prejudice which is emotional and discrimination which is behavioral)
Stigma
Social disapproval. Usually based on overt external deformities, personal-ity deviations, or membership in an unfavored group (e.g. antisemitism).
Stress
The body’s response to an environmental stressor or challenge. Triggers the sympathetic nervous system.
Subcultures
A group of people within a culture that differentiate themselves from the larger culture.
Symbolic interactionism
A microsociological approach that analyzes behavior – people behave towards the environment based on the meaning they ascribe to things, and that sense of meaning is based on social interaction and individual interpretation.
Testes
Sex organ of the male that releases: androgens (mainly testosterone) from Leydig cells, estradiol and inhibin from Sertoli cells
Thyroid
Gland in the neck which releases: calcitonin, thyroxine, triiodothyronine
Trait perspective of personality
Personality is made up of a number of traits that are heavily influenced by biology. Various theories. “Big Five” theory: 1. extraversion 2. neuroticism 3. openness to experience 4. conscientiousness 5. agreeableness.
Unconditioned response
A natural response that happens with no learning at all. (e.g. salivation in response to food)
Unconditioned stimuli
A natural stimulus that provokes a response with no learning at all. (e.g. food is an unconditioned stimulus for salivation)
Universal emotions
Anger, Disgust, Fear, Happiness, Sadness, Surprise
Urbanization
The process of shifting a population from rural to urban settings, most common in developing countries. By 2010, more than half of the world’s population had shifted to urban environments.
Variable interval
Reinforcement after the first response, after a variable time has elapsed (e.g. after a food pellet is dispensed, there is some changing period of time during which no food pellets will be dispensed. After that time is up, the first lever press will get a food pellet.)
Variable ratio
Reinforcement after some changing number of responses (e.g. a food pellet after a changing number of lever presses)
Vestibular sense
The labyrinth of the inner ear provides a sense of spatial orientation, sense of balance, and sense of movement.
Vicarious emotions
When an observer feels the same emotion that someone being observed would feel (e.g. feeling embarrassment when someone else commits a social faux pas)
Visual pathway
Eye, Optic Nerve, Optic Chiasm, Optic Tract, Thalamus, Visual Cortex (occipital lobe)
Voluntary movement control
Posterior part of the front lobe of the cerebral cortex.
Vygotsky and development
Theorized that play is essential in a child’s development. Children learn symbolic play (using a stick to pretend it’s a horse) and learn social rules through play (e.g. playing house to simulate acceptable social interactions)
Weber’s law
States that the ability to distinguish between two physical stimuli depends on a proportional increase in that stimulus (heavier of two masses, louder of two sounds, etc.). For example, a person can tell one mass is heavier than another if there is a 10% difference between them.
sensitivity aka
topographic memory
The ability to recall the contours, design, shape, or structure of a previously experienced environment. 2. The ability to hold in the mind a map of a person, place, or thing.
flashbulb memory
highly vivid and detailed ‘snapshot’ of a moment in which a consequential, surprising and emotionally arousing piece of news was learned. … They ‘feel’ accurate (we are confident in recall) but are just as prone to forgetting & change as other episodic memories
James Lange
A before E
Arousal before emotion
J for jog away the danger, L for later feel your fear
Cannon Bard
Say the two N’s in Cannon simultaneously just like how you would experience arousal and emotion the same time
Schachter-Singer 2 factor theory
2-Factor = The emotion comes twice
Once when you actually experience the arousal and then again when you label the emotion of that arousal.
hindbrain
contains the cerebellum, medulla, reticular
midbrain
contains the inferior and superior vcolliculi
forebrain
contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia , limbic and cerebral cortex
thalamua
relay station fot sensory informtion
basal ganglia
smoothens movement and helps maintain postural stavility
limbic system
controls emotion, memory
amygdala , hippocampus (memory)
parietal
sensation of touch, pressure, temperature and pain , spatial processing, oreintation
temproal
sound processing, speed perception (wernickes), memory, limbic system
Gaba and glycine
brain stabilization
sensation
conversion of physical stimuli into neurological signals
perception
processing of sensory information to make sense of its significance
just noticeable difference
minimum amount of change required in oder for a difference to be perceived
webers law
Just noticeable difference for a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus
habituation
the process of becoming used to a stimulus
Habituation is when we learn that a certain stimulus isn’t relevant to us, and we begin to ignore it. …
dishabiutation
occurs when a second stimulus intervenes, causing resentiziation to the original stimulus
associative learnign
pairing together stimuli and responses , or behaviors and consequences
observational learnign
showing
operant conditioning
punishment and rewards
awake
beta and alpha waves
able to perceive, process, access and express information
stage 1 of sleep
theta
light sleep
2stage 2 of sleep
theta
sleep spindles and K complexes
stage 3/4 of sleep
delta- slow wave sleep, dream, declarative memory consolidation, some sleep disorders
REM sleep
mostly beta, appears awake, dreams, paralyzed, procedural memory consolidation, some sleep disorders, went the bed
deductive reasoning
deriving conclusions from general rules
inductive reasoning
deriving generalizations from evidence
heutritics
biases, intuition, implied way to make decisions, emotions
probalmetic and errors
short term memory aka
working memory
long term memory is split between
explicit memory- conscious adn implicit memory - unconcious
explicit memory
declarative memory (facts and events)
delcarative memory
episodic memory (events and experiences), semantic memory (facts and concenpts
implicit memory
procedural memory (skills, tasks)
retrieval of information is based on priming
interconnected nodes of semantic network
recognition is stronger than
recall of information
stress primary appraisal
classifying a potential stressor as irreverent, benign positive or stressful. Primary appraisal involves determining whether the stressor poses a threat.
secondary stress appraisal
directed at evaluating whether the organisms can cope with teh stress, based on harm, threat and challenge. Secondary appraisal involves the individual’s evaluation of the resources or coping strategies at his or her disposal for addressing any perceived threats.
eustress
moderate or normal psychological stress interpreted as being beneficial for the experiencer.
Distress
stress that negatively affects you
general adaption syndrome
alarm, resistance and exhaustion when exposed to stress
freud stages of psychosexual development
based on tensions caused by libido, with failure at any given stage leading to fixation
cyclothymic disorder
contains hypomanic episodes of dysthymia (A mild but long-term form of depression)
eriksons stages of psychosocial development
stem from conflicts that are the result of decisions we are forced to make about ourselves and the environment around us
trust v, mistrust, initiation vs guilt, etc.
kohl bergs thereof moral reasoning development
describe the approaches of individuals to resolve moral dilemmas
preconventional, conventional and post conventional
Vygotskuys theory of cultural and biosocial development
zone of proximal development - area of learning where one cannot progress on their own, but with assistance from an knowledgable other
agoraphoba
fear of places or situations where it is hard to escape
dissociative amnesia
inability to call past experiences
dissociatiative fugue- a sudden change in location that can involve the assumption of a new identity
depersonalization disorder
feelings of detatahcment from the mind, body and environmnet
psychoanalytic perspective
personality results from unconscious urges and desires
Freed- ID, superego, ego
ID
instincts - rimitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories,
superego
morality
ego
reality
somatic symptom disorder
at least one somatic symptom which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition
conversion disorder
unexplained symptoms affecting motor or sensory function
personality disorder cluster A
odd, eccentric, paranoid schizo
personality disorder cluster B
dramatic, emotional, wild, antisocial, narcassitic
cluster C personality disorder
anxious, fearful worried, avoidant, dependent, OCD
status
a positon in society used to classify individuals. ascribed (involuntarily assigned), achieved (voluntarily earned) or master (primary identity)
role
set of beliefs, values adn norms that define the exceptions of a certain status
display rules
unspoken rules that govern the expression of emotion
impression management
maintains of a public image through various strategies
correspondent inference theory
describes the attribution made by observing the intentional and unexpected behaviors performed by another person
social stratification is based on
SES
class
category of people with shared SES
poweder
capacity to influence people through real or perceived awards and punishments
social capital
the investment people make in society in returnn for economic or collective awards
primacy effect
The primacy effect is the tendency to remember the first piece of information we encounter better than information presented later on.
state dependency effect
state dependency effect refers to the benefit of a match between the conditions (in particular, the subject’s mental and emotional state) under which information is encoded into memory and the conditions present when the subject attempts to retrieve that information.
(people remember more information if their physical or mental state is the same at time of encoding and time of recall.)
For example, if you learned something while drunk, you will have a higher chance of remembering it if you are also drunk.
misinformation effect
Misinformation effects refer to memory errors (usually errors of commission), in which some information introduced and encoded after the target information is retrieved along with some portions of the target information. In such cases, the subject usually has trouble identifying which retrieved information had been originally encoded and which information was introduced subsequently, a situation known as source confusion.
dual coding effect
Dual-coding refers to the retrieval advantage of verbal items that are imageable. These items are encoded with both a verbal code and a visual code, which benefits their retrievability.
spreading activation theory
when the representation of a concept is activated in memory, the activation spreads to concepts that are semantically or associatively related to it. Thus, people often retrieve unpresented members of a category when tested on their memory for a series of presented concepts from that category.
source monitoring effect
Source monitoring refers to a subject’s ability to retrieve the details of the situation extant when memory items were encoded. More specifically, when some additional information is introduced after the original encoding, this post-event information can be mistakenly included in recall of the original event, leading to a misinformation effect.
recency effect
items at the end of a list are generally recalled better than items presented in the middle)
when does conservation get acquired according to Piaget
According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, mastery of conservation is the criterion for entering the concrete operations stage, which starts at approximately 7 years and ends around 11 to 12 years. The vast majority of the 11-year-olds will have entered the concrete operational stage. Thus, they will be able to judge that pouring water into the taller beaker does not change its quantity.
classical conditioning is a
behaviorist appraoch
humanistic appraoch
The humanistic approach emphasizes the personal worth of the individual, the centrality of human values, and the creative, active nature of human beings. The approach is optimistic and focuses on the noble human capacity to overcome hardship, pain and despair.
psychodynamic theory
think unconscious, fruef
trait approach
he trait approach is a way of studying personality that places emphasis on the traits of an individual as markers of personality. Traits are continuing patterns of behavior and thoughts that are generally stable over time.
discriminatory stimuli.
allow an organism to tell whether an appetitive stimulus or an aversive stimulus is forthcoming in an operant conditioning situation.
the ability to distinguish among different stimuli
sigalling stimuli
signaling stimuli are neutral stimuli that may potentially become conditioned stimuli.
positive punishers
the decrease in the frequency of a response resulting from the introduction of an aversive stimulus following that response. The patient describes the panic attacks as highly aversive and mentions that he no longer goes to meetings for fear of a panic attack. Because the frequency of the patient’s attendance at meetings has decreased as the result of the panic attacks, the panic attacks have acted as positive punishers.
negative punishers
Negative punishment refers to the decrease in the frequency of a response resulting from the removal of an appetitive stimulus following that response.
osing access to a toy, being grounded, and losing reward tokens are all examples of negative punishment. In each case, something good is being taken away as a result of the individual’s undesirable behavior.
reticular activation system.
The reticular formation (RF), deep in the brainstem, is concerned with functions involving arousal, particularly the sleep-wake cycle, and attention.
case study
etailed examination of a particular case within a real-world context. For example, case studies in medicine may focus on an individual patient or ailment
Choroid
located deep to the sclera
the choroid of the eye is primarily a vascular structure supplying the outer retina.
Cornea
the cornea forms the outermost layer of the front of the eye, in which it directly contacts the back of the eyelids. Due to this direct interaction, the cornea is highly susceptible to damage caused by flaking skin from the back of the eyelids.
protecting the structures inside the eye, contributing to the refractive power of the eye, and focusing light rays on the retina with minimum scatter and optical degradation.
Lens
deeper in the eyes com[ared to the cornea
to transmit light, focusing it on the retina
retina
The retina forms the innermost layer along the posterior portion of the eye.
It’s a thin tissue that lines the inner surface of the back of the eye. Your retina contains light-sensitive cells that receive information and send it to the brain through the optic nerve, which enables you to see.
chemically gated ion channels are involved with what senses
Chemically gated ion channels require the binding of a molecule to the ion channel, causing it to open. This is observed during olfaction and gustation, but not during the activation of hair cells, which occurs upon the physical perturbation of the hair cell membrane.
mechanically gated ion channels are involved with what sensses
Sound wave-induced vibration of hair cells generates tension within the cell membrane that directly activate ion channels responsible for auditory signaling. This type of ion channel is a mechanically-gated channel, such that upon its activation, it generates a depolarizing current within the cell.
electrically gated ion channels
Electrically gated ion channels activate upon a change in membrane potential. Activity of electrically gated ion channels is associated with action potential propagation, but not vibration of the hair cell membrane.
actor observer bias
observers will attribute their own bad behavior to situational factors (not feeling well), whereas observers will attribute actors’ behavior to dispositional factors (social awkwardness).
habitutiation
The study involves reduced responding to a repeating stimulus
response to a stimulus decreases after repeated or prolonged presentations of that stimulus.
dishabitation
Dishabituation is a form of recovered or restored behavioral response wherein the reaction towards a known stimulus is enhanced,
stimulus generalization
Stimulus generalization is the tendency of a new stimulus to evoke responses or behaviors similar to those elicited by another stimulus
little Albert- scared of all white furry things- rabbit, mouse, etc.
optimal arousal theory
ptimal performance requires optimal arousal and that arousal levels that are too high or too low will impede performance
arousal
Increases in the electrical conductivity of the skin is a physiological indication of increased sympathetic arousal, which is associated with anxiety.
ceiling effect
most subjects score near the top
questions too easy
floor effect
floor effect is when most of your subjects score near the bottom
questions too hard
Selye’s general adaptation syndrome
organism’s stress response always follows a similar course, regardless of the exact nature of the stressor.
cerebellum
The coordinated finger tapping in the synchronous behavior condition is a motor task.
hippocampus function
memory
hypothalamus function
concerned with functions like the processing of sympathetic nervous system inputs and control of the endocrine system (i.e., through its connection to the pituitary gland).
social facilitation
social facilitation is the theory that we tend to do better on easy tasks when we know we are being watched or assessed. We do less well on more complex tasks when we know we are being observed by others.
egocentricism.
the inability to differentiate between self and other. More specifically, it is the inability to accurately assume or understand any perspective other than one’s own
Ethnographic methods
research approach where you look at people in their cultural setting, with the goal of producing a narrative account of that particular culture,
interviews
Quantitative methods
utilize numbers
median
The median represents the middle of the distribution, splitting the sample distribution of values in half. Thus, a median of 25 can be accurately described as when half of the sample has a BMI over 25 and the other half of the sample has a BMI under 25.
social support
Social support typically refers to the tangible and intangible forms of assistance that individuals receive from their social ties.
assistance rather than set of relationships. Social support means having friends and other people, including family, to turn to in times of need or crisis to give you a broader focus and positive self-image.
social network
Network analysis involves mapping the social relationships that exist among a set of individuals.
social stratification
refers to the hierarchy of social positions in a society (often according to either social class or social status). Stratification does not describe the relationship among individuals but rather the relationship among social positions in a society.
social reproduction
Social reproduction refers to the perpetuation of inequality through social institutions. Because of the focus on institutions, social reproduction would not apply to relationships among a set of individuals.
Gentrification
Gentrification describes the process in which relatively affluent individuals move into a neighborhood that recently consisted of residents with moderate to low income. With the arrival of more affluent residents, housing demand increases and often leads to a decrease in affordable housing available to lower income residents.
involves Increased neighborhood stratification, Displacement of lower-income residents, Expanded tax base for local government
group polarization
group polarization, in which people’s attitudes become more extreme after they discuss the attitude object with like-minded individuals. Thus, their scores will most likely indicate a greater risk aversion than participants who were tested alone.
assimilation
the process in which new members of a society adopt the norms and values of the dominant culture. NOT- that cultural changes have on an individual’s health- can be a consequence of assimilation but not tenet
includes when when individuals relinquish the cultural norms of their childhood, the context of migration (movement both within a nation and across nations), describing the process of cultural adaptation that occurs as a result of moving to a different location.
A central tenet of assimilation is that individuals will adopt the norms and values of a new culture.
the nativist hypothesis
nativist hypothesis is concerned with the acquisition of a child’s first language
language is an innate fundamental part of the human genetic make-up and that language acquisition occurs as a natural part of the human experience. … They believe that children have language-specific abilities that assist them as they work towards mastering a language.
Linguistic relativity
the structure of a language affects its speakers’ worldview or cognition, and thus people’s perceptions are relative to their spoken language
short term memory
STM capacity lies between 5 and 9 items. George Miller (1956) named this idea the “Magical Number 7 + 2”.
chunking
which individual pieces of an information set are broken down and then grouped together in a meaningful whole
episodic memory
Episodic memory refers to long-term memory representations of events experienced by the participant.
working memory
is the small amount of information that can be held in mind and used in the execution of cognitive tasks
before working memory is sensory memory
extrnisic motivation vs. instrnsic
trinsic motivation involves performing a task because it’s personally rewarding to you. Extrinsic motivation involves completing a task or exhibiting a behavior because of outside causes such as avoiding punishment or receiving a reward.
an assimilated group
An assimilated group would refer to a group that adopts the norms and values of a new culture.
reference group
ndividuals often emulate the attitudes and behaviors of groups that they would like to join. Sociologists refer to these groups as reference groups, which are important for self-evaluation and identity formation. The scenario in the question suggests that the teen constructs an identity, through modifying behaviors (dressing, speaking, acting), to match that of teens from the dominant cultur
peer group
peer group is made up of individuals in a similar social position or social role
semantic memory
Semantic memory refers to memory for general world knowledge and other meaningful information, including the meanings of words and phrases.
role strain
Role strain is the tension that results from competing demands within the context of a single social role
role conflict
two different roles
student adn a emplyee
refers to the tension that can exist between social expectations of two or more social roles that a single individual holds.
homogeneity
Homogeneity generally refers to similarity in demographic characteristics of social ties in a network (such as based on gender identity, race/ethnicity, or social class).
network reduency
Network redundancy refers to repetition of ties within a social network.
groups numbers
larger groups are generally considered more stable but less intimate, whereas smaller groups are usually considered less stable but more intimate. Dyads, two-person groups such as the physician–patient group, are unstable because either party can break the single social tie. The triad, three person groups such as the physician–patient–cultural liaison group, is considered relatively more stable because of the additional social tie. As a result, the triadic group provides the advantage of added stability in group dynamics.
neighborhood-level socioeconomic inequalities
Neighborhoods that are segregated by socioeconomic status create increased social distance and different experiences, such that people from different social backgrounds can have trouble relating to one another. The closed networks and social boundaries will impact physician-patient interactions when the physician and patient have different experiences from living in distinct, and often very socially separated, neighborhoods.
mixed methods study
both a quantitative component (the statistical analysis of the total claims) and a qualitative component (the in-depth analysis of a subset of cases).
cnflict theory
onflict theory emphasizes competition between social groups over the allocation of resources. The theory assumes that power and authority are unequally distributed across a society, and that groups attempt to maintain their advantages.
symbolic interactionaism
effective social interactions, whereas discrimination is a subjective quality of those interactions.
functioanlist theory
functionalist theory, which assumes that social phenomena have specific functions that work within a systematic whole.
ethnographic methods
involving systematic observation of a complete social environment.
caste systems
Caste systems are generally closed stratification systems that do not provide many opportunities for social mobility.
class systems
Class systems have status positions, but are generally not considered to be closed. Opportunities for social mobility can also vary significantly in class system
a person can work hard and go up.
economy stsemss
Economic systems would refer to how the economy of a society is structured
financial systems
to how a society finances its economy and organization
reliabilty
consistency
validity
is it true
fovea
d in color sensation and its distribution of receptors varies across different species.
Fovea: In the eye, a tiny pit located in the macula of the retina that provides the clearest vision of all. Only in the fovea are the layers of the retina spread aside to let light fall directly on the cones, the cells that give the sharpest image
sclera
the white outer coating of the eye. It is tough, fibrous tissue that extends from the cornea (the clear front section of the eye) to the optic nerve at the back of the eye. The sclera gives the eyeball its white color. The cornea and sclera are made of the same type of collagen fibers.
optic disc
e optic disc is the round spot on the retina formed by the passage of the axons of the retinal ganglion cells, which transfer signals from the photoreceptors of the eye to the optic nerve, allowing us to see.
lens
that allows the eye to focus on objects at varying distances. It is located behind the iris and in front of the vitreous body. … It’s also flexible, so it can change shape and bend the light to focus properly on the retina.
somatosensory cortex.
s a region of the brain which is responsible for receiving and processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain. …
conflict theory
The sociological paradigm of conflict theory broadly calls attention to competition among social groups, including generational conflict
is likely that competition over resources will emerge between the old and the young (for example, public support of health care versus education, each of which tends to benefit one age group more than the other). A conflict theorist would be interested in explaining how political power varies by generational status and thus affects the allocation of social resources
dependency ratio
The dependency ratio is a ratio of the number of economically dependent members of the population to the number of economically productive members. The economically dependent are those considered too young or too old to work, whereas the economically productive are the working-age population (approximately between the ages of 18 and 65).
the life course perspective.
The life course approach examines an individual’s life history and investigates, for example, how early events influenced future decisions and events such as marriage and divorce,[2] engagement in crime, or disease incidence.[3]
In particular, it directs attention to the powerful connection between individual lives and the historical and socioeconomic context in which these lives unfold.
linguistic relativity hypothesis?
Humans are better at distinguishing colors for which their language has a name.
uman cognition is affected by language.
source monitoring error
confused where the sources of info came from. fro example, think that old names and celebrity names are the same thing, and when new names and presented can tell they are different
conversion disorder
mental condition in which a person has blindness, paralysis, or other nervous system (neurologic) symptoms that cannot be explained by medical evaluation
dissociative disorder
The patient is selectively forgetting distracting elements of his/her life, which indicates a dissociative disorder.
experiencing a disconnection and lack of continuity between thoughts, memories, surroundings, actions and identity
Latent learning
o knowledge that only becomes clear when a person has an incentive to display it
student watches a lesson about adding double-digit numbers and can later demonstrate the knowledge during an important test.
meritocracy
Such questioning of opportunity would be relevant to the concept of meritocracy, which assumes that opportunity is based on a combination of talent and effort.
cultural capital
cultural capital comprises the social assets of a person that promote social mobility in a stratified society.
is the knowledge, experience and or connections one has had through the course of their life that enables them to succeed more so than someone from a poor background.
social/cultural capital vs. meritocracy
Economic capital: money Social capital: who you know
Cultural capital: cultural are education, knowledge, skills you may have
Meritocracy is just based off merit and achievement. Basically you work hard for what you earn as opposed to getting the job because your friend works there
relative poverty
refers to social disadvantage by income or wealth as compared to the social advantages linked to income or wealth in a society.
not enough money to afford anything above the basics
aboslute poverty
Absolute Poverty is used to describe a condition where an individual does not have the financial means to obtain commodities to sustain life
a condition where household income is below a necessary level to maintain basic living standards (food, shelter, housing).
fundamental attribution error?
stressing the importance of dispositional (i.e., personality) factors in one’s explanations of other people’s behavior and underemphasizing situational factors.
schemas
organized clusters of knowledgge
affective attitude
person’s feelings or emotions in their shaping on attitudes to a person or object
Which type of psychoactive drug has the lowest risk of dependence?
halluncigens
Without a description of differential treatment or behavior
discrimination is not identified.
social loafing refers to the fact that people are more productive alone than in a group.
that individuals are less critical and less creative in group
freud stages
oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stag
Groupthink refers to:
the presence of conformity pressures and beliefs of superiority that lead decision-making groups to fail to critically evaluate their alternatives and options.
hich of the following individual-level effect is most similar to groupthink?
confirmation bias (the person to seek, and attend to, only information that confirms his or her existing point of view and to ignore disconfirming evidence.)
response bias
esponse bias refers to people’s tendency to respond to tests or assessment items based on some factor other than the content (i.e. what questions are being asked). In other words, response bias occurs when people answer test items in ways that do not align with their true attitudes, beliefs, thoughts, or behaviors.
Response bias (also called survey bias) is the tendency of a person to answer questions on a survey untruthfully or misleadingly. For example, they may feel pressure to give answers that are socially acceptable
self serving bias
he self-serving bias describes when we attribute positive events and successes to our own character or actions, but blame negative results to external factors unrelated to our character
hinsight bias
pon learning an outcome of an event—such as an experiment, a sporting event, a military decision, or a political election—to overestimate one’s ability to have foreseen the outcome. It is colloquially known as the “I knew it all along phenomenon.”
The left cerebral hemisphere in humans is most often linked with which cognitive function?
Vocabulary skills tend to be lateralized to the left hemisphere, whereas visuospatial skills, music perception, and emotion processing tend to be lateralized to the right hemisphere.
interferance
en people study new material, any new information introduced between the initial learning (i.e., encoding) and retrieval, such as viewing a movie, will interfere with memory consolidation.
intelliegence
Emotionally intelligent people are self-aware and can delay gratification in pursuit of long-term rewards, rather than being overtaken by immediate impulses.
shaping
shaping is the use of reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior. Specifically, when using a shaping technique, each approximate desired behavior that is demonstrated is reinforced, while behaviors that are not approximations of the desired behavior are not reinforced.
CBT
systematic modification of individual behavior and self-assessments.
structural functionalist
From the functionalist perspective, almost all social actions have both manifest functions and latent functions, both of which are connected to overall social stability
manifest, or intended, and latent, or unintended,
The Hawthorne effect
describes changes in research participants as a result of their awareness that they are being observed.
self fulling prophency
n individual’s internalization of a label that leads to a fulfillment of that label.
impression managemnet
efers to individuals actively managing how they are perceived by others.
behaviors intended to control how others perceive oneself, especially by guiding them to attribute desirable traits to oneself. Typically, it is assumed that people attempt to present favorable images of themselves as a means of obtaining social rewards and enhancing self-esteem.
Thomas theroem
he Thomas theorem states that if an individual believes something to be real, then it is real in its consequences.
other words, our behavior depends not on the objective reality of a situation but on our subjective interpretation of reality.
Exchange mobility
Should a set number of people move upward from the middle class, an equal number is expected to move down from the upper class.
Horizontal mobility
horizontal mobility, which is a type of social mobility, refers to the change of physical space or profession without changes in the economic situation, prestige, and lifestyle of the individual, or the forward or backward movement from one similar group or status to another.
downward mobility
ndicates a lowering of one’s social class. Some people move downward because of business setbacks, unemployment, or illness.
upwardmobility
pward mobility refers to an increase—or upward shift—in social class
flashbulb memory
subjectively vivid, compelling memories of details associated with reception of news about emotionally arousing events were referred to as flashbulb memories
.Prospective memory
he ability to remember to carry out intended actions in the future
Eidetic memory
ability to recall an image from memory with high precision for a brief period after seeing it only once, and without using a mnemonic device.
reproductive memroy
recall that is hypothesized to work by storing the original stimulus input and reproducing it during recall.
Episodic memory
the conscious recollection of a personal experience that contains information on what has happened and also where and when it happened.
Semantic memory
the memory of meaning, understanding, general knowledge about the world, and other concept-based knowledge unrelated to specific experiences. …
grass is green
iconic memory
memory of visual stimuli.
Echoic memory
ltra-short-term memory for things you hear. The brain maintains many types of memories. Echoic memory is part of sensory memory, storing information from the sounds you hea
central and peripheral aspects
emotional arousal seems to focus a person’s attention on the central features of an event
memory for the fundamental gist of the emotional event is retained, whereas memory for details (if they are encoded at all) either fades or undergoes change
empathy and personal distress
experiencing psychological distress when observing someone in pain is an element of empathy. Thus, if people who got high scores on the empathy questionnaire got low scores on the psychological distress questionnaire, the validity of both questionnaires could be called into question.
panic disorder
a pounding heart, chest pain, shortness of breath, sweating, and feeling dizzy
no rem sleep the night before
ing REM-deprived the night before, the volunteer is going to exhibit “REM rebound.”
group therapy vs. individual
individual therapy sessions helped control for the extraneous influences of other patients, and observational learning is the only form of learning among the options that requires the presence of others
social capital
social capital, which refers to the benefits provided by social networks.
anger and hostility associated with
which have been found to be associated with increased risk of heart disease
what part of the brain initiates signals to the endocrine system?
hypothalmu
self-fulfilling prophecy
observer’s expectations either directly or indirectly lead to the expected attributes or behavior. A teacher’s low expectations and low standards can cause students to behave in ways that then confirm the teacher’s low expectations (or standards).
dichotic listening task i
presenting two different auditory messages, one to each ear.
life course perspective
he description of behavioral interventions in the question calls attention to how substance use patterns develop at particular life stages. Attending to life stages is a major characteristic of the life course perspective.
social identity
`he link between prejudice, discrimination, and health rests, at least partly, on the assumption that individuals will attribute stressful experiences to their status as members of a racial/ethnic group (in other words, stressors will be linked to their social identity)
primary gruop
(referring to more intimate social ties).
socia facilitation
the finding that people sometimes show an increased level of effort as a result of the real, imagined, or implied presence of others
associative learning.
If someone eats a particular food, then develops a headache soon afterwards, they may learn to associate that food with headaches (even if the food didn’t cause the headache), and not want to eat it again.
conlifct theory
why groups dont get along
functionalist thory
The functionalist perspective sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.
intragenerational mobility.
moving from one social class to another over the course of a lifetime
inergenerational mobility
parent and you comparson
ny change in the status of family members between generation
self verification
self-verification refers to the tendency to seek out (and agree with) information that is consistent with one’s self-concept.
self serving bias
when we attribute positive events and successes to our own character or actions, but blame negative results to external factors unrelated to our character.
The Myers–Briggs inventory
self-report inventory designed to identify a person’s personality type, strengths, and preference
serotonin
erotonin is involved in the regulation of both mood (specifically, aggression) and appetite (it is also used to regulate intestinal movements).
Conscientiousness
which includes responsibility and planning
neuoriticm
which includes insecurity and anxiety)
Incentive theory
behavior is motivated by a desire for reinforcement or incentives
Expectancy–value theory
motivation for a given behavior or action is determined by two factors: (i) expectancy, ie, how probable it is that a wanted (instrumental) outcome is achieved through the behavior or action; (ii) value, ie, how much the individual values the desired outcome.
Self-determination theory
people are motivated to grow and change by three innate and universal psychological needs. This theory suggests that people are able to become self-determined when their needs for competence, connection, and autonomy are fulfilled
role strain
in one position
stress of being a parent
role conflict
parent and work
2 roles
mom and worker
symbolic interactionist’s
that people respond to elements of their environments according to the subjective meanings they attach to those elements, such as meanings being created and modified through social interaction involving symbolic communication with other people
. For example, the word ‘dog’ is just a series of letters. Through your interactions with the letters ‘dog’, you see this as a furry, four-legged canine.
Learned helplessness
a condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a traumatic event or persistent failure to succeed. It is thought to be one of the underlying causes of depression.
self efficacy
an individual’s belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments
fundamental attribution error
TO OTHERS
latent function
the hidden curriculum refers to the subtle lessons that are taught in school that reinforce broader social norms. The hidden curriculum can be combined with the concept of latent functions (aspects of a social institution that may serve an unacknowledged purpose), in order to better understand how education functions as an institution.
manifest function
intended function of social policies, processes, or actions that are consciously and deliberately designed to be beneficial in their effect on society
sensory interaction
is the idea that one sensory modality (e.g., vision) may influence another (e.g., balance).
vestibular sense
movement, gravity and/or balance sense, allows us to move smoothly.
motion parallex
objects moving at a constant speed across the frame will appear to move a greater amount if they are closer to an observer (or camera) than they would if they were at a greater distance.
perceptual maladaptation.
trait that is more harmful than helpful. s
Elderly individuals have more crystallized intelligence
r intelligence about facts and things (i.e. wisdom).
Younger individuals have more fluid intelligence
, or problem-solving ability (
fixed ratio
reinformcent only occurs after a fixed number of responses
sell 5 cars to get a bonus
doesn’t matter time- if a week, month
fixed internval
payment every 2 weeks as long as he sells some cars
dependent on time (2 weeks), but still consistent. doesn’t matter about of cars
slower than fixed ratio response- no motivation
fixed
consistent!
interval
time
variable
variation
ratio
ration. amount
variable ratio
the reinfrocer deliver after an average amount of responses occur
number of responses needed to recite the reinforcement changes after each reinforcer presented
average!! must sell 5 cars for first bonus, 3 cars for second bonus, etc.
add up all teh cars sold, and divide by bonuses he received, 5.
slot machine- what if next pull is jackpot
variable interval
reponses are reinfoeced after a variable time is passed
shows up aT some point to give him a bonus
doesn’t matter average or amount of cars, but if supervisor just sees him
better than fixed interval
discriminating stimuli
which signal the availability of reinforcement or punishment.
behaviorist perspective
that only actual outcomes of a behavior determine whether that behavior will be repeated, not mental processes
Extrinsic motivation (external)
any motivation that results from incentives to perform a behavior that are not inherent to the behavior itself- money, award, praise, etc.
means that we do something not for the sake of inner fulfilment (because we want to), but to gain a reward or avoid a punishment. … External motivation comes from outside to motivate people. It stems from things like money, recognition, fame, or praise.
Rogers’s concept of incongruence
unpleasant feelings can result from a discrepancy between our perceived and ideal self. The perceived self is how an individual views themselves and the ideal self is how an individual wishes they were.
Base rate fallacy
the tendency for people to erroneously judge the likelihood of a situation by not taking into account all relevant data. Instead, investors might focus more heavily on new information without acknowledging how this impacts original assumptions.
. If presented with related base rate information and specific information, people tend to ignore the base rate in favor of the individuating information, rather than correctly integrating the two.
observor bias
any expectations, beliefs, or personal preferences of a researcher that unintentionally influence his or her recordings during an observational study.
retina functions to:
detect light rays and convert them into signals for the brain to process.
he retina contains photoreceptors such as rods and cones, which detect light and transduces light to energy. The energy eventually becomes an action potential and the signal travels through the optic nerve and travels to the primary visual corte
lens can
he lens can focus the incoming light rays on the photoreceptors. This is not a function of the retina.
cornea nad iris funtion
The cornea and iris can accommodate and focus the incoming light rays on the lens
glass escalator
glass escalator” suggests that men who pursue occupations that have high proportions of women (such as teaching or nursing) will quickly ascend the career ladder with promotions.
functional fixedness
Functional fixedness refers to people’s tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions, which can inhibit solving problems.
over confidence effect
Overconfidence effect refers to the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments.
availability heuristic
The availability heuristic refers to the tendency to estimate the likelihood of events based on how easily (i.e., how rapidly) examples of those events can be retrieved from memory.
confirmation bias
The confirmation bias refers to the tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions.
labelnig thwory
Labeling theory suggests that people are often placed into social categories, one of which could be a stigmatized category.
social stigma
reference group
reference group because participants will evaluate themselves based on thoughts about the group.
status groups
Status groups are defined based on noneconomic characteristics such as prestige. The study does not create status groups, which tend to be defined through social institutions.
primary group
rimary groups refer to close, informal, sustained ties, like close friends and family.
group affiliation is greatest when
Group affiliation (attraction and commitment) is likely to be greatest when the members or participants in the group share similar outlooks, knowledge, preferences, skills, and other aspects of cultural capital.
parkinsons disease
decreased mobility and increased frequency of tremors.
low dopamine levels
affective
emotional state
Shachter–Singer theory,
Shachter–Singer theory, because it focuses on the role of cognitive appraisal in influencing affective states
social learning theory
Social learning theory is a theory of learning process and social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others.
observation
gender socialization
Gender socialization refers to the learning of norms and values associated with masculinity or femininity. Gender norms related to masculinity include the encouragement of high-risk behaviors, of which heavy drinking would be an example.
cognitive part of attidue
The cognitive component of an attitude consists of an individual’s beliefs about the attitude object. The passage states that study participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement with statements that assert beliefs about gender and family life.
audiographical memory is apart of
When participants respond to questions about their childhood health history, they are retrieving autobiographical information, which is an important type of episodic memory.
semantic memory
type of long-term memory involving the capacity to recall words, concepts, or numbers, which is essential for the use and understanding of language.
nowing that grass is green. Recalling that Washington, D.C., is the U.S. capital and Washington is a state
implicit memroy
Implicit memory, which is tested by observing a participant’s performance on a task that does not involve any type of recall or recognition (
alchol dependence is indicated by
Alcohol dependence is most strongly indicated by withdrawal symptoms.
over extension
“Overextension” is the term for applying a term for one class of objects to other objects that bear only a superficial resemblance (for example, “doggie” for a cow).
naming explosion
a marked increase occurs in the rate at which new words are added to the child’s productive vocabulary
child is 2
categorical perception.
when items that range along a continuum are perceived as being either more or less similar to each other than they really are because of the way they are categorized.
bootstrapping.
humans are born innately equipped with a mental faculty that forms the basis of language. It
Systematic desensitization
a treatment for phobias in which the patient is exposed to progressively more anxiety-provoking stimuli and taught relaxation techniques.
he intensity of an unconditioned stimulus is gradually increased until it no longer elicits the conditioned response.
Elaborative encoding
by relating it and connecting the new information to already existing knowledge.
to combining new (to-be-remembered) information with existing memory representations, which enhances the probability of retrieving that new information
sponteous recovery
pontaneous recovery is the process by which a previously extinguished behavioral response returns after a delay (i.e., a rest period) following extinction.
monocular depth cue
Monocular depth cues are the information in the retinal image that gives us information about depth and distance but can be inferred from just a single retina (or eye)
Objects that are higher up in the visual field are perceived as being farther away than the objects that are lower in the visual field, Objects that are occluded by other objects are perceived as being farther away than the objects that occlude them, Objects that have more detailed textures are perceived as being closer than objects that have less detailed textures.
NOT: D.Objects that are to the front of the point of focus are perceived as being closer than objects that are behind the point of focus. (binocular depth cue)
binocular depth cue
Binocular depth cues are especially important in determining the distance of objects that are relatively close. .
anomie
Anomie refers to a feeling of detachment from society due to a lack of stable social norms
Globalization i
describe how trade and technology have made the world into a more connected and interdependent place
social epidemiology
social determinants of health and disease.
poverty or racial/ethnic minority status, are important determinants of depression
macro vs. micro sociology
macrosociology (discussion of structural factors) rather than microsociology (focus on smaller scale group interactions).
medicalization
The focus on alcohol use as a treatable disorder raises the concept of medicalization
not exactly cost benefits of antidepressants
disinhibition and alcohol
The disinhibition hypothesis predicts that alcohol will have a weakening effect on the inhibition of impul- sive behavior when people are sober.
insit¨io†nal discrmination
Institutional discrimination calls attention to policies at the organizational or institutional level in health care. Rather than being directly exclusionary, these policies tend to have a disproportionate impact on certain groups.
assimilation and health
The concept of assimilation proposes that an immigrant group will eventually adopt the customs (norms, values, etc.) of the majority group in a society. Because of taking on such norms over time, the immigrant group’s health outcomes (including life expectancy) would be likely to approximate the majority group’s health outcomes (including life expectancy).
group poliarization vs. groupthink
think about extreme decisions for polarization, group think is conformity
damave to dopamine reuptake
parkinsons and schizo
chanigng of mind/belief
NOT cognitive dissonace
signal detection theory
measuring a system’s ability to detect patterns/stimuli/signals in information despite background noise.
invol motor movements as seen in Parkinson’s has to do with which brain region
basal gangia
high visual acuity= fovea,
high density of cones
most people remember 10 words no matter the data amount
yes
retroactive interference
the tendency of later learning to hinder the memory of previously learned material.
ccurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task.
but if relearned previous material, would come back faster
proactive interference
Proactive interference (pro=forward) occurs when you cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been learnt.
hoard resources
foragin
paternalism in healthcare
doctors know best
primary drive
hunger, sleep, etc
cannon bard
physiological and emotion are independent of each other
imitative learnign
when someone actually imitates what you are doing, not exactly observational learnign
