Chem-Phys1 Flashcards
Scientific Notation
method of writing numbers that takes advantage of powers of 10: significand and exponent
Significand
absolute value in the rang 1-10, cant be 0
Converting #s to Scientific Notation
move the decimal point until the signficand is bigger than or equal to 1 and less than 10
What is 34,600, 0.0003201, 1.10 and 525,600 in scientific notation?
34,600, 3201, 1.10, 525,6
When rounding two numbers containing decimals, in which direction should each number for multiplication go?
adjust the two decimal points in opposite directions: as one moves up, move the other down
When rounding two numbers containing decimals, in which direction should each number for division go?
adjust the two decimal points in the same direction
Scientific Notation Tips
- Count all numbers between the first nonzero digit on the left and the last nonzero digit on the right
- any 0s to the left of the first nonzero is consider NS
- 3,490 has 3 sig, 3,490.4 has 4- watch for decimal places
Rounding of Sig Figs
round to the number of sig figs that is the same as the least number of sig digits in any of the factors given
X^0 =
1
X^A x X ^B =
X^(A +B)
X^A/ X^B =
X^(A-B)
(X^A)^B =
X^ (A x B)
(X/Y)^A =
X^A/ Y^A
X^-A
1/X^A
X^(A/B)
square root with B on the outside of X^A
Perfect Squares Example: square root of 180 =
square root of 4 x square root of 9 x square root of 5 = 2 x 3 x square root of 5 = 6 square root 5
square root of 2
1.414
square root of 3
1.732
LogA 1=
0
LogA A=
1
Log A x B =
Log A + Log B
Log A ^ B
BLogA
Log (A/B)
Log A - Log B
Log (1/A)
-log A
Henderon-Hasselbalch equation
pH= pKa + Log [A-/HA]
(a + b) ^2
a^2 + 2ab + b
Log (n x 10^m) = log (n) + log(10^m)
= m + log (n)
values of sin, cos and tan range
sin and cos range from -1 to 1, tan ranges from - infinity to positive infinity
inverse of sin, cos and tan used to find
angle of interest
0 degrees sin, cos and tan values
sin = 0, cos = 1, tan = 0
30 degrees sin, cos and tan values
1/2, root 3 over 2, root 3 over 3
45 degrees sin, cos and tan values
root 2 over 2, root 2 over 2, `
60 degrees sin, cos and tan values
root 3 over 2, 1/2, root 3
90 degrees sin, cos and tan values
1, 0, undefined
180 degrees sin, cos and tan values
0, -1, 0
Fahrenheit equation from C
F= 9/5C +32
Kelvin equation with C
K= C +273
Conversion between metric prexies is accomplished by what?
by muiltpication or divine by appropriate power of 10. For example, millimeters (10^-3) to kilometers (10^3), multiply by 10^-6
scientific method
set of steps that defines the appropriate order of event to structure and carry out an experiment
scientific method steps
generate testable question, gather data, hypothesis (if-then and testable), collect new data (experimentation or observation), analyze data, interpret data, publish, verify results
FINER method
method to determine whether the answer to ones question will dd to the body of science knowledge in practical way and within reasonable period
FINER method 5 questions
- is research study going to be feasible? - obtain necessary supplies, financial or time restraints, gather enough subjects
- Do other scientists find this question interesting?
- Is this question novel?– gain any new knowledge?
- Would the study obey ethical principles?
- Is the question relevant outside scientific community?-more important if impact more people
errors or biasing during publication are most likely to affect which stages of scientific method?
affect the quality of future experimentation since their is a flawed research base and therefore subsequent hypothesis will be flawed
basic science research
experimenter has so much control because done in lab not on people
controls
acts as a method of verifying results
postitive controls
ensure a change in the DV when it is expected
administer HIV test to HIV positive people
negative control
ensure no change in the DV when no change is expected – placebo effect (observed change when people given a sugar pill)
administer HIV test to HIV negative people
positive and negative controls create ___
the upper and lower bounds
IV
manipulate
DV
measure or observe
causal relaionships
if the change in the IV always precedes the change in DV< and the change in the DV does not occur in absence of intervention, then causal
basic science researcher errors
experimental bias is minimal, except if have faulty hypothesis, failing to publish results that may contradict hypothesis
instrument error
may affect accuracy, precision or both
accuracy
also called validity- ability of an instrument to measure a true value
precision
or reliability - ability of an instrument to read consistently or within a narrow range
accurate but not precise
persons weight between 150-190 pounds
inaccurate but precise
129 and 131 pounds, but rlly 140 pounds
inaccurate tools (but precise) produce
systematic error/bias
controls purpose
controls experimental help establish casualty by demonstrating that the outcome does not occur in absence of the intervention. controls are suet keep the manipulation of diff systems as similar as possible, or as known standard against which to judge an experimental manipulation
human subjects research
experimental control is low (because of ethics) and relationships are weaker
experimental and observational studies
randomization
control for differences between subject groups in biomedical research
placement of each subject into a control group or treatment group
coin toss random
blinding
researchers have no information about which group the subject is in
single blinded experiments
only the patient or assessor (person who makes measurement on patient) is blinded
double blinded experimetns
both investigator, assessor and patient do not know subjects group
confounding variables
internal validity decreases, alternative explanations for the data
gender, age, lifestyle things, etc
types of questions: binary
yes or no, better or worst
continuous variables
on a range- percent improvement, weight loss
categorical variables
SES, where do you live
observational approach
cohort, cross sectional or case -control studies
no experiment/manipulation
no causality
cohort studies
subjects sorted into groups based on differences in risk factors (exposures) and then assessed at various intervals to determine how many subject sin each group had a certain outcome
count how many people get lung cancer with 20 people who smoke and 20 people who dont smoke over 40 years
cross sectional studies
attempt to categorize patients into different groups at a single point in time
prevalence of lung cancer in smokers or nonsmokers at a given point in time
case control studies
look at how many subjects have a particular outcome to not, and then look backwards to see how many subjects in each group had exposure to a certain risk factor.
100 patients with lung cancer and 100 people without lung cancer are assessed for smoking hisotry
Hill’s criteria
observed relationships components that increase the likelihood of causality in the relationship
described as correlation for any observational study
dose response relationship
as IV increases, increase in response
consistency
relationship found in many settings
plausiblity
reasonable mechanism for the IV to impact the DV with support by literature
specificty
change in DV is only produced by associated change in IV
coherence
new data and hypotheses are consistent with the current state of scientific knowledge
systematic error bias
does not impact precision, but skews data in one direction or another
bias
a result of flaws in the data collection systematic error (unidirectional) that occurs when selected subjects or collecting data
confounding
error during analysis
selection bias
subjects used for study are not representative of target population
people who volunteer vs. people who dont volunteer
gender in study, age
detection bias
educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way. because prior studies indicate there is a correlation, researchers will expect to find one
Hawthorne effect
or observation bias, behavior of the study participants us altered because they recognize they are being studied
want to look good- exercise more than normal
confounding
data analysis error
incorrect relationship is characterized
third party variables
alt explanations
causality 3 things
temporal precedence, correlation (associated) and internal vliaidty (no 3rd v)
observational relationships
no manipulation of the subjects environment. less conclusive and more subjective than experimental research
ethics
beneficence, nonmalefience, autonomy, justice
beneficence
obligation to act in the pt best interest
nonmalefience
obligation to avoid treatnetrs or intverntions in which harm would outweigh benefits
autonomy
responbsity to respect patients decisions and choices about own healthcare
justice
responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and distribute healthcare fairly
Belmont report
respect for persons, justice and benfieince
respect for persons
honesty between subjects and researcher
informed consent - know al the Risks, benefits, goals to make a knowledgeable decision if want to participant
no coercive influence
can withdraw consent at any time
IRB
protection against unethical studies
vulnerable people
prisoners, women and children have special protection with research
justice
morally relevant differences - diff between individuals that are ok to treat them differently (age)
NOT ok: race, ethnicity, sexual oretination- treat the same
important in selection subjects and executing research
no harm to any group
beneficence
intent to cause a net positive change for both the study population and general population, minimizing potential harms - least invasive, painful or traumatic way
catheter or finger poke - equipoise- finger poke Is superior
compensatory influence
no impact the decision to participant, coercive influence is which subject loses autonomy to make the decision
population
complete group of every individual that satisfies that attributes of interest
humans- 7 billion people
American F between 18-20 YO
parameter
information that is calculated using every person in a population
sample
making generalizations about populations based on sample data
any group taken from a population that does not include ALL the people
random samples!! to ensure represenatative
low generalizabilty
narrow conditions for sample selection that do not reflect target population
statistically significant
not as a result of random chance
internal validity
tendency for same experiment to produce the same results when repeated and provides support for causality
external validity
ability to take the info generated and apply it to larger group. also called generalizabilty
small sample isses
subject to more random variation than larger samples. if only 1 person is selected, may be an outlier. If larger sample, an outlier has less of an effect on results
clinical significance
impact patients - notable change in health status as a result of research intervention
protons
found in the nucleus
+1 charge
atomic number of an element= number of protons (Z)
all oxygens have the same amount of protons (8)
neutrons
neutral, no charge. mass number (A)- sum of the protons and neutrons mass (which makes up most of the atoms mass) a given element can have a variety of neutrons, so have different mass number (same atomic number tho)
isotopes
atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers
determined by neutrons
A/Z X
mass number/atomic number Element
electrons
-1 charge.
very small mass.
move around nucleus at varying distances, corresponding to varying levels of electrical potential energy.
electrons closer to nucleus have
lower energy levels
electrons farther from nucleus (higher electron shells) have
higher energy! strongest interactions with the surrounding environment and weakest interactions with the nucleus. Called valence electrons- more likely to bond with other atoms since dont feel nucleus electrostatic pull.
determine reactivity of the atom
donating or sharing increases stability in reaching highest energy level
positively charged atom
cation
negatively charged atom
anion
charge is determined by
electrons
atomic number is determined by
protons
heaviness of an element
atomic weight is constant for a given element, atomic mass or mass number vary from 1 isotope to another (because neutrons)
atomic mass
mass of 1 proton= 1 amu= mass of 1 neutron
atomic mass of an atom is nearly equal to
its mass number in amu, in sums of protons and neutrons
atomic weight
the weighted average of these different isotopes of an element
represents both the mass of the average atom of that element in amu and the mass of 1 mole of the element in grams
half life corresponds with
stability and proportions of these isotopes
a mole is
a number of “things” (atoms, ions, molecules) that equal to Avogadros number (6.02 x 1023)
example of atomic weight
atomic weight of C is 12.0 amu, which means that the average carbon atom has a mass of 1 amu and 6/02 x 10^23 C atoms have a combined mass of 12 g.
Planck relation
the energy of a quantum
E= hf
h= Plancks constant = 6.626 x 10^-34 J x s
f= frequency of the radiation
angular momentum
L=mvr
kinetic energy
1/2 m v ^2
Bohr Model
angular momentum
angular momentum
L = nh/2 pi
n= quantum number (+ integer)
h=plancks constant (6.626 x 10^-34)
angular momentum changes with regards to quantum number
energy of the electron equation
E = -(R sub H)/n^2)
R sub H = Rydberg unit of energy= 2.18 x 10^-18 J/electron
energy of electrons changes with regards to quantum number
the energy of the electron increases- becomes less negative- the farther out from the nucleus it is located (increasing n)
electrons jump when
the amount of energy exactly is equal to the difference between 1 orbit and another
like a staircase, not a ramp
the orbit with the smallest, lowest energy radius
ground state (n=1)
excited state
when an electron moves to a sub shell of higher than normal energy - an orbit with a larger radii
Bohr model importance
explain atomic emission and absorption spear of atoms
electrons can be excited with the addition of
heat or energy forms, bu brief and electrons will return to ground state, leading to emission of energy in the form of photons. these energy transition do not form a continuum, but rather are quantized to
electromagnetic energy of photons equation
E= hc/lambda h= planks constant (6.626 x 10^-34) c= speed of light in a vaccum (3.00 x 10^8 m/s) lambda= wavelength of the radiation
line spectrum
each line on the emission spectrum (frequency of light) corresponds to a specific electron transition. Because each element can have its electrons excited to a diff set of distinct energy levels, each possess a unique atomic emission spectrum (fingerprint for element)
Lyman series
hydrogen emission lines corresponding to transition from energy levels n > 2 to n= 1
Balmer series
hydrogen emission lines corresponding to transition from energy levels n >3 to n=2
4 wavelengths in visible region
Paschen series
Hydrogen emission lines corresponding to transition from energy levels n >4 to n=3
the energy associated with a change in the principal quantum number from a higher initial value ni to lower final value nf is equal to
the emerge of the photon predicted by plancks quantum theory.
Combining Bohr and PLancks calucations
E= hc/lambda= R sub H [1/ni^2 - 1/nf^2
the energy of the emitted photon corresponds to the difference in energy between higher energy initial state and the lower energy final state
absorption spectrum
when an electron is excited to a higher energy level, it must absorb exactly the right amount of energy to make that transition. energy absorption at a specific wavelength to exciterse electrons of a particular element.
each element has a unique
emission spectrum and absorption spectrum (correspond together because the difference in energy between levels remains unchanged )
absorb energy in forms of light and emit in forms of light
Bohr’s model failed to
explain the structure and behavior of atoms containing more than 1 electron (only did Hydrogen)
did not take into account repulsion between many electrons surrounding the nucleus.
difference between Bohr’s model and modern quantum mechanical model
Bohr thought that electrons followed a clear defined circular pathway or orbit a fixed distance from the nucleus , whereas modern quantum mechanics showed that electrons move more rapidly and are localized within regions of space around the nucleus (orbitals). Impossible to determine where an electron is exactly at any point in time.
Heisenberg Uncertanity principle
it is impossible to simulateouly determine, with perfect accuracy, the momentum, and the position of the electon
Pauli exclusion principle
no two electrons In a given atom can possess the same set of 4 quantum numbers (n/l/ml and ms)
energy state
the position and energy of an electron described by its quantum number. the value of n limits l which limits ml
quantum number give info about
size, shape and orientation of the orbitals.
quantum number n
principal quantum number. used in Bohr’s model and can take on any + integer number. the larger + number, the higher the energy eve and radius of the electron shell.
maximum number of electrons within a shell
2n^2
n- principle quantum number
the difference in energy between two shells decreases as the distance from the nucleus increases due to
the energy difference is a function of [1/n^2 - 1/nf^2]
ex. difference between n=3 and n=4 shells are 1/9 - 1/16 is less than the difference between n=1 and n=2 shells (1/1- 1/4).
azimuthal (angular momentum) quantum number- l
refers to the shape and number of sub shells within a given energy level (shell). important implications with chemical bonding and bond angles.
the value of n limits l
for any given value of n, the range of possible values for l is 0 to (n-1).
ex. n==2 sub shells
l can be 0 or 1.
spectroscopic notation
principal and azimuthal quantum numbers principal quantum number is a number (1, 2) and l turns into letters l=0: s l= 1: p l=2: d 1=3: f example. n=4 and l=2 =4d
the energies in the sub shells increase
with increasing l values
magnetic quantum number
ml. specifies the particular orbital within a sub shell where an electron is most likely to be found at a given moment in time. each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.
integers between 1 and -1,including 0.
s sub shells, with l=0, limits ml to 0 because there is a single value o fm1 and only 1 orbital in s shells.
the p sub shell, l=1, ml can be -1, 0 or 1, because there are 3 values for m1 and three values in the p sub shell.
d sub shell has 5 orbitals (-2 to +2) and f has seven orbitals (-3 to 3)
the shape of the orbital, like the number of orbitals is dependent on
the sub shell in which they are found in: s shells are spheres, p shells are dumbbells
as atomic number increases, so does number of electrons
2p contains 3 orbitals. If each orbital contain 2 electrons than 6 electrons can be added during the course of filling 2p orbitals.
spin quantum number
ms. spins in +1/2 or -1/2. whenever two electrons are in the same orbital, they have opposite spins- refereed to as paired. electrons in diff orbitals with the same ms values are parallel spins.
electron configurations
the pattern by which subshells are filled, number of electrons within each energy level and sub shell is designated by this.
use spectroscopic notation, first number denotes energy leveladn the letter is sub shell and subscript is number of electrons in subshell.
2p^4- 4 e- in the second p sub shell of the second energy level (1s and 2s are indicated to be full)
Aufbau principle
electrons fill from lower to higher energy sub shells and each sub shell is completed before electrons begin to enter the next one.
n+ 1 rule
rank sub shells by increasing energy. the lower the sum of the values of the first and second quantum number, n+ 1, the lower the energy of the sub shells.
lower n value, fill with electrons first.
Hunds rule
in sub shells that contain more than 1 orbital, such as the 2- sub shell with 3 orbitals. This rule states that within a given sub shell, orbital are filled such that there are a max number of half filled orbitals with parallel spins. Would prefer own orbital before forced to double up with another. due to repulsions.
half filled and fully filled orbitals have lower energies and higher stability than other states
chromium electron configuraton
Ar 4s^23d^4 but moving 1 e- from 4s to 3d all’s 3d to be half filled and be Ar4s^1 3d^5
how many electrons each orbital can hold
s- 2
p- 3
d- 10
f-14
copper electron configuraton
Ar 4s^13d^10 rather than Ar4s^23d^9 as full d sub shell outweighs the cost of moving an electron out of th 4s sub shell.
never observed In p shells- not worth loss of stability.
paramagnetic
unpaired electrons in atoms will oreint their spins in a ligament with a magnetic field and the material is weakly attracted to it.
diamagnetic
toms that have only paired electrons will be slightly replied by magnetic field
valence electrons
outermost energy shells electrons- easily removed and available for bonding
IUPAC step 1
identify the longest carbon chain containing the highest-order functional groups, also called the parent chain, If there are two or more chains of equal length, then then the more substituted chain gets priority as the parent chain.
IUPAC step 2
number the chain. Number 1 is closest to the highest priority functions group. If all the same priority, numbering the chains should make the numbers of the substituted carbons as low as possible
oxidation state
the more oxidized the carbon is, the higher priority it has in the molecule. oxidation state increases with more bonds to the herteroatoms (any atom but H and C) and decreases with more bonds to H.
rings- double and triple bonds
everything is the same- numbering from greatest sub. if there is a tie between assigning priority in a molecule with a double and triple bond, double bond takes precendence (not normal)
IUPAC step 3
name the subsitutuents. Substituents are functional groups not apart of the parent chain. Name will be placed at the start of the cmpd name as a prefix, followed by name of the longest chain. only the highest priority functional groups will determine the suffix for the cmpd and must be apart of the parent chain.
CH3, CH3Ch2, CH3CH2CH2
methyl, ethyl, n-propyl
if there are multiple subsitutents of the same type, use these prefixes:
di-,tri-, tetra0, etc.
IUPAC step 4
give C number designation and use prefixes
2,3-dimethyl
IUPAC step 5
complete the name. alphabetical order sub!!! prefixes like di-, tri- are ignored when alphabetizing. numbers are separated by commons, and form words with hyphens.
example- 4-ethyl-5-isopropyl-3,3-dimethyloctane
hydrocarbons
only C’s and H’s
alcohols
C’s, H’s and OH!
alkane
simply hydrocarbons with the formula CnH2n+2.
methane- 1C
ethane-2C
propane-3C
butane-4C
meth isn’t ethical or propiate BUT
pent, hex, hept, oct, non, dec, undec, dodec
halogens
common sub on alkanes. alkyl halides are indicated by prefix: fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo
-ene, -yne
double and triple bonds. usually is named like a sub and numbered by lowest C.
example: 2-butene, or but-2-ene
1,3-butadiene
alcohols
named by replacing -e at the end of the name with -ol. -OH gets the lowest possible number, even when there is a multiple bond present due to its higher oxidation state. If alcohol is not highest sub group, then it is called hydroxy-.
ex. ethanol
5-methyl-2-heptanol
hept-6-en-1-ol
alcohols with 2 hydroxyl gross are called diols or glycols
and are indicated with the suffix -diol. ex. ethane-1,2-diol has hydroxy group on each C. diol is added at end.
diols with hydroxyl groups on the same carbon
geminal diols
diols with hydroxyl groups on adjacent carbons
vicinal diols
2-propanol
isopropyl alchol
ethanol
ethyl alcohol
aldehydes and ketones both contain a
carbonyl group, C=O. with no leaving groups connected to the carbonyl carbon- only connected to the carbon chain or aldehydes with a H. if there is a higher priority group, name ketone and aldehydes with prefix oxo- or keto- for ketones only
aldehydes
chain terminating- end of parent chain. generally attached to carbon 1 bc takes priority. Replace -e with -al.
ex. butanal
ketones
found in the middle of carbon chains. replace -e with -one. give lowest possible number
ex. 2-penanone
methanal, ethanal, propanal
formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde.
propanone
always ketone on C2.
acetone
carbon adjacent to the carbonyl carbon
alpha. successive C’s are beta, gamma, and delta. on ketone, both C’s are considered alphas in the carbonyl carbon
ketones and aldehydes both take precedence over:
alcohols and hydrocarbon chains, and the functional group that is the highest priority determines the suffix. aldehydes usually do suffix because they are terminating
carboxylic acids
both a carbonyl group (C=O) and a hydroxyl group (-OH) on a terminal carbon. terminal functional groups like aldehydes. Oxidized carbon!!! (3bonds to it)so HIGHEST PRIORITY GROUP EVER! replace -e with -oic acid.
formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid
methanoic acid, ethahnoic acid, propanoic acid
esters
common carboxylic acid dervitaitves. hydroxyl group (-oh) is replaced with an alkoxy group (-OR, where R is a hydrocarbon chain). based on carboxyl naming. first term is how many C are in the hydrocarbon chain
ethyl, methyl, propyl, etc.
second term is the parent acid, with -oate replacing -oic acid.
methyl butanoate
amides
carboxylic acid derivative. the hydroxyl group is replaced by an amino group (n containing group). N can be bonded to 0, 1 or 2 alkyl groups (C, H). Suffix is amide. Sub are started with capitol N in front to indicate they are bonded to N- not numbered and prefixed.
N-ethyl-N-methylbutanmide
anhydrides
carboxylic acid derivative (from 2 actually and water is removed. Cyclic molecules. replace acid with anhydride in the name of the corresponding carb acid if the anhydride is formed from only one type of carb acid. if the anhydride is not symmetrical, both carb acids are named without suffix acid and before anhydride is added.
ex. ethnoic propanoic anhydride
ethnoic anhydride
functional group proriorty list
carb acid (oic acid), anhydride (anhydride), ester (oate), amide (amide), aldehyde (al), ketone (one), alcohol (ol), alkene (ene), alkyne (yne), alkane (ane)
suffix ^^^^
mendelevs table was arranged by atomic weight, but modern periodic table is arranged by
atomic number (number of protons in an element)
A elements
representative elements- groups 1A-VIIIA- valance elcectrons in the orbitals of either s or p sub shells.
B elemtns
nonrepresenative elements (transition elements - valence electrons in the s and d subsehlls) and the lanthanide and actinide series (s and f sub shells)
metals are
lustrous (shiny), high MP and densities, malleability (can be deformed without breaking), ductility (pulled into wires),low EN, large atomic radius, small ionic radius, low ionization e, low electron affinity, good conductors - two or more osdiations states - loosely held to atoms
nonmetals are
upper right side of table. no metallic luster, high ionization energy, electron affinity, EN and small atomic radii and large ionic radii. poor conductors cuz cant give up e-.
metalloids
both metals and nonmetals.brittleness but good conductivity.
effective nuclear charge
a measure of the net positive charge experienced b the outermost electrons. pull toward the center. increases from L to R of the periodic table . Zeff. constant in given group.
principal quantum number
down the elements of a given group, increases. valence electrons are separated from the nucleus.
octet rue
tend to be most stable with 8 electrons in valence she
atomic radii
equal to 1/2 the distance between centers of 2 atoms in contact with one another. decreases from L to R across a period. atomic radius increases down a group
ionic radii
metals lose e- and become +, nonmetals gain e- and become -. metalloids go based on side they fall on. nonmetals close to metalloid line possess a larger ionic radius than counterparts. metals close to metalloid line have more ee- to lose, and experience a less drastic reduction in radius during ionization.
ionization energy
energy required to remove an electron from gas/- input of heat- endothermic. high Zeff, more close to nucleus, harder to remove. increases from L to R and bottom to top.
electron affinity
energy dissipated by gas species when it gains an electron . opposite of ionization E. exothermic process. the stronger the electrostatic pull (higher Zeff) between the nucleus and valence e-, greater the E release will be when the atom gains an e-. increases across period from L to R, decreases from top to bottom.
Electronegativity
measure of thr attractive force that an atom will exert on an electron in chemical bond. greater EN, more it attracts e- within that bond. lower ionization E, lower EN. first 3 nobel gases are exceptions.
high reactivity to water
groups 1 and 2
six valence electrons
6 and 16 groups
contain at least 1 metl
groups 1-15
multiple oxidation states
all groups. notably 3-12 (transition metals)
- oxidation states
all groups, notably 14-17 (nonmetals)
possess a full octet in neutral state
group 18
group 1
alkali metals. Zeff low. low densities. low ionization E, low electron affinity, low EN
alkaline earth metals
group 2. slightly higher effective muscular charge and slightly smaller atomic radii.
active metals
group 1 and 2- so reactive
chalcogens
group 16/ eclectic group of nonmetals and metalloids. reactive. 6 e- in valence shell and small atomic radii and large ionic radii. Ozugem
halogens
group 17 are highly reactive with 7 e- valence. want to complete octet. gas to solids and liquids. high EN and electron affinity
noble gases
group 18. inert gases. limited reactive because 8 valence e-. low BP
transition elements
groups 3-12. metals with low electron affinity, low ionization E, low EN, high MP and BP . malleable and good conductors. ‘different oxidation states because capable of losing diff #s of electrons from the s and d orbitals.
if a newton is the product of a kilogram and m/s, units for pounds are
Force will obey the sam relationship with mass and ace elation, so always m/s. one pound = slightly x ft/secons square
smallest to largest
angstrom, cm, inch, foot, mile
scalars
numbers that have magnitude only, on direction- distance, speed, energy, pressure and mass
A + B and B + A
vectors look the same - no difference in R
A- B and B-A
have the same R but in opposite directions
scalar is calculated by 2 vectors by using the dot product
A x B = ABcos theta
vector is calculated by 2 vectors by using the cross product
A x B = ABsintheta
displacement
has magnitude and direction- net change from initial to final direction
velocity
rate of change of displacement over time. speed is rate of distance.
insanteous speed of an object will always be equal to the magnet of the objects
instaneous velocity, which measures the average velocity as the change in time approached 0
average velocity
displacement vector over time- vector
average speed
scalar. the rate of total distance traveled over a change time
v= d/t
equation
total distance traveled can Never be less than the total displacement
because displacement is the most direct route.
displacement
velocity over time
Equation - gravtional force
Fg= Gm1m2/r^2 G= 6.67 x 10^-11
friction equation
Friction = muFn
Weight equation
Fg= mg
acceleration equation
a= v/t
direction of the friction force always opposes
movement.
if there is no net force acting on an object,
then the objects not expericnign an acceleration and has a constant velocity
Force on you by earth and force of you on earth is
equal! forces are reipiorcal in magnitude.
Newtons first law
F= ma= 0. A body either at rest or in motion with constant velocity will remain that way unless a net force acts on it
Newtons second law
F= ma. An object of mass m will accelerate when the vector sum of the forces results in some nonzero resultant force vector. Accleraiton results from sum of force vectors
Newtons third law
Fab= -Fba
to every action there is an equal opposite reaction. For every force exerted by A on B, there is an equal but opposite force on B on A
equations
V= Vo + at x= Vot + at^2/2 V^2= V^2o + 2ax x=vt Fc= mv^2/r
the only force in free fall and projectile motion
gravity
free fall
object falls with constant acceleration, without air resistance. not reach terminal velocity. 9.8
projectile motion
2 dimensions, x and y. . objects in motion on earth experience force and accleriton due to gravity only in y axis, Vx remain constant.
greattes horizational displacement at angle
sin and cos are at 45
greatest vertical displacemnet at angle
launched vertically?
translational equilibrium
forces cause objects to move without any rotational. vector sm of all the forces acting on a object is 0, constant speed and direction
rotational equlibirium
occurs when forces are applied against an object to cause an object to rotate around a fixed point- torque
T= F x r- Frsintheta
sum of all torques is 0
equation
v= frequency x wavelength
period
number of seconds per cycle- T= 1/freq
angular frequency
measures in radians per second
= 2 pi frequency or 2pi/T
wave speed
is the rate at which a wave transmit the E or matter it is carrying. parodic of frequency and wavlength
frequnecy
measure of how often a waveform passes a given point in space. Hz.
angular frequency
same as frequency but in radians per second
equilibrium position
point with 0 displacement in an oscillating system,
amplitude
max displacement of a wave from equilibrium position
traveling waves
have nodes and antinodes that move with wave propganda
standing waves
defined nodes and antinodes that do not move with wave propgandtion
sound waves
longutidal waves
principle of supoerposition
when waves interact, the displacemnt of the resultant wave at any point is the sum of the displacement of the two waves interacting together
sound is produced by
mechanical vibrations generated by solid objects or fluids. sound is longutidal waves
ampltiud oof sound wave is related to its sound level
or volume. frequency of wave is related to its pitch
open both sides
wavelength = 2L/n
closed on side
wavelength = 4L/n
string
wavelength= 2L/n
isomers
same moclulear formula, different structures
structural isomers
share their molecular formula, meaningg that their molecular weights must be the same
different physical and chemical properties
different ways to draw C6H14
conformational isomers
physical properties
dont change the composition of matter- MP, BP, solubilit, door, color and density
chemical properties
reactivity of the molecule with other mc and result in a change in composition
stereoisomers
same chemical formula AND same atomic connectivity- same structural backbone. Differ in how these atoms are arranged in space
conformational isomers
differentiations in rotation around a single sigma bond. When double bonds hold mc in specific positions, single bonds are free to rotate. Varying degrees of rotation can create different levels of strain
conjugational isomers
can be interconverted only by breaking bonds
staggered/anti conformation
when 2 big molcules are 180 degrees away from each other and there’s no overlap so steric are decreased
gauche conformation
from anti to gauche, pass through eclipsed conformation where 2 big groups are 120 degrees apart. when two groups directly overlap with each other (same plane, same side- totally eclipsed)
two forms of confirational iosmers
enatioomers and diastereomers
chiral
mirror image cannot be superimposed on the OG image-lacks symmetry. looks at hands.
chiral center- C- lack a plane of symmetry
enatiomers
two molecules that are non superimposale mirror images of one another. same connectivity but opposite configurations at every chiral center in the molecule. have identical physical and chemical properties except topical activity and reactions in chiral environments
RS, SR
diastereomers
chiral and share the same connectivity, but not mirror images because differ at some chiral centers. occur when a molecule has two or more stereogenic centers and differ at some , but not all of these centers.
RR, RS
SR, SS
SS, RS
C atom with 3 different subsitutrants
plane of symmetry and is achiral
optical activity
rotation of the plane polarized light by a chiral molecule.
racemic mixture
when both positive and negative enantiomers are present in equal concentrations, cancel each other out and no optic activity occurs.
cis trans isomera
specific type of diasteromers in which subtituents differ in their position around an immovable bond, like a double bond. Cis if same said, opposite side is trans
meso compounds
a molecule with a chiral center that has a plane of symmetry- not optically active
Cahn-Ingold-Prelog Priority rules
priority is assigned based not eh atom bonded to the double bonds carbons- higher the atomic number, higher the priority. Used for EZ nomenclature, with double bounds
Z
two highest priority sub on each C are not eh same side of the double bond
E
opposute sides of the double bond
RS
used for chiral (streogenic) centers in mc
nomenclature of Chiral
assign priority- right down numbers
arrange in space- lowest priority (H) back of mc
invert stereochem- any time two groups are switched on a chiral C, the stereochemistry is inverted
draw a circle- S= counterclockwise
R (to the right)- clockwise
fisher projections
horizontal lines indicate bonds that project out front eh plane (wedges) and vertical lines indicate bonds going into the plane (dashes)
same steps as above, but after make 1 switch. swap the lowest priority group with one of the groups on the vertical axis. Then turn it 180.
ionic bonding
electrons are transferred from 1 atom to another and the resulting ions are held together by electrostatic interactions
coavlent bond
electrons are shared between atoms
bonding occurs in the
outmost shell of electrons
the quantum numbers describe
the shape, size number and origination of atomic orbitals an element posses
n— energy level of a given electron- size. smaller #= closer e is to nucleus and lower its E.
L- ranges from 0 to n-1.
0=s
1=p
2=d
3=f
ml- orbitals - from -L to +L
shape
each orbital can hold 2 electrons, which are described by ms: 1/2 and -1/2
bonding orbital
if the signs of the wave functions are the same
antibonding orbital
If the signs are different a high E (less stable) bond is produced
when a molecular orbital formed by head to head or tail to tail overlap
sigma bond! All sigma bonds are single bonds
when two p orbitals line up parallel , their electrons clouds overlap
create a pi bond. cannot exist without a sigma bond
pi bond to sigma bond
double bond
sigma bond and 2 pi bonds
triple bond- hinder rotation
the more bonds that are formed between atoms
the shorter the overall bond length is. double bond is shorter than a single bond. Hold atoms more closely together and stronger- require more E to break.
although pi bonds individually are weaker to break than sigma bonds- breaking a sigma bond may require more E so double may break to a single.
triple bond>double>sims>pi
bonding orbitals are more stable than antibonding
so anti has higher E than bonding
hybrid orbitals
fome day mixing different types of orbtals
how much “s” chatacter
ex. sp^3
3 p’s and 1 s so 25% s.
Carbon is most often bonded with
sp3 hydribitazation
sp2
alkenes! 3rd p orbital is left unhydrbizaed and participates in pi bonding. three sp2 orbitals are located 120 degrees apart, separate. two will participate in C-H bonds and the other will do C=C with a sigma bond (with the pi bond above)
sp
to form a triple bond, two p orbitals to form pi bonds and third p orbital will combine with s to form two sp orbitals. 180 degrees Can form triple bond or two double bonds in a row like CO2
resonace
electrons in molecules that have conjugated bonds- alternating single and multiple bonds- aligns with unhybridized p orbitals down backbone. pi orbitals can delocalize through this p orbital system adding stability to the mc.
octet rule
states that an atom tends to bond with other atoms so that it has 8 electrons in its outermost shell
incomplete octet
these elements are stable with fewer than 8 electrons in their valence shell and include H (stable with 2), helium (2) , lithium (2) , beryllium (4) and boron (6)
expanded octet
any element in period 3 and greater can hold more than 8 electrons, like phosphorous (10), Sulfur (12) chlorine (14)
odd numbers of electrons
any molecule with an odd number of valence electrons cannot distribute those e to give 8 to each atom, like NO (11)
always do octet rule
O, N, C, F, Na, Mg
ionic bonding
one or more electrongs from an atom with low ionization energy, like. a metal, are transferred to an atom with high electron affinity, a nonmetal
NaCl
electrostatic charges hold groups together
crystal lattice structure
covalent bonding
electron pair is shared between 2 atoms, nonmetals with similar EN. The degree to which their pair of electrons is shared equally or unequally determines the degree of polarity (dipole)
if shared equally- non polar
if not- polar
cation
atom that loses electrons
anion
gains electrons
ionic bond
cation and anions, attraction
formed with nonmetal and metal
ionic properties
high MP and BP, dissolve in water and polar substances, conductors of Electricity, crysatizze dilative to bring together opposite charge and all away repulsive forces
coavlent
when 2 atoms of similar tendery to attract electrons form a compound, energetically favorable then completing a full transfer
weak interactions so lower MP and Bp, poor conductors of electricity
formation of 1 covalent bond may not be sufficient to fit the valence shell so
atoms form bonds with more than 1 atom
single
double
triple cov bond
bond order
number of shared electrons (single =1 , double =2)
bond length
average distance between two nuclei of atoms in a bond
as number of shared electrons pair increases, the two atoms are pulled together, decrease in bond
bond energy
energu required to break a bond by spectating its component into their isolated gas atomic state- more e- share, more E to break the bond- triple bonds have the greatest energy= stronger bond
polarity
differences in EN
dipole
non polar covalent bond
no seperation of change across the bond
equal or near equation
F2, N2
polar covalent bonds
uneven sharing
non polar cov bonds will form with
En= 0 - 0.5
polar cov bonds will form with
En- .5-1.7
ionic bonds with form
En- 1.7 or higher
strongets to weakest intermolecular forces
H bond> dipole> LDF
H bond
H with EN
molecule
two or more atoms held together by a covalent bond
Co2 - diff elements
N2- same element
molecular weight
sum of atomic weights for al the atoms in a molecule - amu per molecule
formula weight
adding up all the atomic weights of a ion according to empirical formula
mol weight of SOcl2
S: 1 x 32.1 amu= 32.1
O: 1 x 16
Cl: 2 x 35.5 = 71
total = 119.1 amu
where do u find atomic weights?
mole
any substance equal to the number of particiles found in 12 g of c
avogadros number (Na)
6.022 x 1023
molar mass
mass of one mole of a camped is molar mass : g/mol
equvilants
how many moles of the things we are interested in looking at will 1 mole of a given cmpd produce?
= mass of cmpd/ gram eqvulant weight
gram equiv weight = molar mass/ n
law of constant composiiton
any pre sample of a given compound will contain eh same elements in an identical mass ratio
water- for every 1 g of H there will be 8 g of O because there is 2 H and 1 O
empirical formula
only the ratio and may not give actual number of atoms
molecular formula
gives the actual number of atoms of each element in the compound
percent composition
mass of elect in form/molar mss x 100
combination rxn
two or more rectants form 1 product
decomposition Rxn
a singel reactant breaks down into 2 or more products
combustion reaction
requires fuel- hydrocarbon and oxygen (oxidant)- produce CO2 and water
single displacement rxn
when an atom of ion in a compound is replaced by an atom or ion of another element
Cu + AgNO3 –> Ag + CuNO3x
double displacement
elements from 2 differ compounds swap places with each other to form 2 new comounds
CaCl2 + AgNo3 –> CaNo3 + AgCl
neutralization reactions
acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water
a type of double displacemnet reactions
limiting reagent
limits amount of product that can be formed int eh reaction
percent yield
actual/theoreetical x 100
electrolytes
solid ions are poor comducots because the charged particles are rigidly set in place
needs to be aqueous solution with ions floating around
HCL in water- highly dissociate = high conductors
weak electrolyte- ionizes incompletely and only some solute is dissolved- acetic aid, Hg2I2, weak acids, ammonia, weak bases, bipolar gases, glucose, Co2, O2
Energy
a systems ability to do work
Kinetic energy
energy of motion
k= 1/2 mv^2
energy is in
Joules (kg/m^2/s^2)
if the speed doubles the kinetic energy will
quadruple
potentential energy
given objects position in space
gravitational potential energy
PEg= mgh
elastic potentil energu
PEel= 1/2 kx^2
k- spring constant - stiffness
x- displacement
sm of objects potential and kinetic energy= total mechanical energy
E= U + K
conservative forces
path independent and that do not dissipate energy- gradational and electrostatic
constant mechanical energy
remains constant
back to initial position - from a to b to a
full circle
nonconservative forces
decrease mechanical E of system- E is dissipated
more E is dissipated with longer path
friction, air resistant,
work is not a form of eneregyc, but a process by which E is transferred from 1 system to another
other way to transfer is by heat
w= F x D
work is in J
work equations
W= Fdcostheta W= P delta V -- isobaric process- pressure is constant W= delta K
volume stays constant and pressure changes
isochoiric process
power
rate at which E is transferred from 1 system t another
P= W/t = delta E/t
measured in Watt
work energy thereoym
Kf- Ki = delt K= W net
as the length of the inclined plane increases, the amount of force necessary to perform the same aount o work
decreases (movign the same object the same displacement)
the six simple machines are inclined plane
wedge,e wheel and ankle, level , pulley and
no heat flows between 2 objects in thermal equilibrium
thermal contact and same temp
chemical kinetics
the study of reaction rates the effects of reaction conditions on these rates, mechanisms applied
Gibbs free energy
spontaneous and nonspotaneous reactions
whether a reaction will occur by itself or will it need outside assistance
rate deterring step
slowest step in any proposed mechanism- acts as a kinetic bottleneck - preventing the overall reaction from proceeding any faster than the slowest step.
activation energy
the minimum energy needed for a chemical reaction to occur.
collision theory
the rate of a reaction is proportional to the number of collisions per second between the reacting molecules.
but not all collisions create a reaction- need to collide with correct origination adn energy to brea old bonds and form new ones. Activation energy barrier needed to be overcome.
rate= Z x F
z=total number of collisons
F- fraction of collisions that are effective
arrehenius equation for rate
k= Ae ^(-Ea/RT)
k= rate constant A-= frequency T= temp -E= activation energy A= frequency factor
when molecules collide with energy equal to or greater than teh activation energy they form a
transition state in which old bonds are weakened and the new bonds begin got form.
transition state dissociates into products , fully forming the new bonds.
delt G reaction
the difference between teh free energy of the produces and the free E of the reactants
-delta G
exergonic - energy is given off
positive delta G (free energy)
endergonic- energy is absorbed
factor affecting reaction rates
greater concentration of reactants- greater number of effective collisions per unit time- increase of frequency factor
as temp increases so does reaction rate
depends on medium (aqueous , solvents (ethanol)
catalysts - increase reaction rate without being consumed- can increase frequency of collisions with reactions, change origination, etc.
rate law
rate =k [A]^x [B]^y
zero order reaction
rate of formaion of product C is independent of changes in concentration of any of the reactants, A and B
constant action rate = to the rate constant k
rate = k [A]^0 [B]^0
when temp lowered- rate decreased
concentrations doubled- unaffected rate
catalyst added- rate increases
first order reaction
a rate that is directly proportional to only one reactant , such that doubling the concentration of that reactant results in doubling of the rate of formation of the product.
rate - k [A]^1 or
rate - k [B]^1
when temp lowered- rate decreased
concentrations doubled- rate doubled
catalyst added- rate increases
second order reactions
rate that is proportional to either the concentration of 2 reacts or to the square of the concentration of a single reactant
rate = k [A]^1 [B]^1
rate - k [A]^2
rate - k [B]^2
when temp lowered- rate decreased
concentrations doubled- rate multiplied by 4
catalyst added- rate increases
carbonyl
in aldehydes and ketones, s well as esters, carboxylic acids, amides, anhydrides
double bondbetween a carbon and an oxygen
nucleophile or electrophile
ketone
2 alkyl groups bonded to the carbonyl
never a terminal group
ALDEhyde
1 alkyl group and one hdyrogen bonded to carbonyl
terminal group
replace the -e at the end of the alkane with the suffix -al.
methanols, ethanol, propanal, butanal, pentanal
methanol
formadelhyde (1C)
ethanol
acetaldehyde (2C)
aldehydes as functional groups have prefix
oxo-
ketones are named by replacing the
-e with -one
two alkyl groups named alphbetcually and then followed yb ketone
as subsistuntes, use prefix oxo- or keto-
2-propanone (dimethyl ketone, acetone)
2-butanone (ethylmethylketone)
physical properties of aldehydes and ketones
governed by the carbonyl group.
dipole is stronger wut carbonyl because double bonded oxygen is more electron withdrawing.
increased intermolecular attractions with an elevation in BP (less than alc tho because no H bonding)
electrophile- due to electron withdrawing of carbonyl O, partial positive on C.
aldehydes more reactive to nucleophiles because have less steric hinderance
order of names
meth eth prop but
forming an aldelhyde
oxidation of primary alc but can only be produced using weaker oxidizing agents like PCC
ketones formed
by the oxidiadation of secondary alcohol
nucleophile attack on carbonyl C
nucleophile attacks and forms a covalent bond with the C, breaking pi bond in carbonyl. elections from pi bond are pushed Onto oxygen which accepts extra e- due to electron. Breaking the pi bond forms a tetrahedral intermediate. Need a good leaving group to reform (with aldehydes and ketones- dont reform). Can pick up H from solution and make alc. Good leaving groups are present with carboxylic acid and double bond can reform pushing off the leaving group.
geminal diols
in the presence of water . The nuceoleophilic oxygen in water attacks the electrophilic carbonyl Carbonyl C, pushing electrons up from the double bond and attaching water on. Water loses its one H to the top O and so now 2 alcohol
aldehydes and ketones treated with alchols
hemiacetal or hemiketal.
retention of the hydroxyl group.
Attacks (ROH) and oxygen loses double bond. Grabs alcohol H and so there’s 1 Alc and 1 OR group.
2 equivalents- proceed to competition with 2 OR groups instead of just 1 (get rid of alc)
SN1 reaction
OH proontated and lost as water in acidic conditions.
form acetals and ketals - protecting groups
nitrogen and nitrogen based functional groups act as good
nucleophiles due to teh lone pair of electrons on nitrogen, react radoly with electrophilic Carboxyl on aldehydes and ketones.
imine
ammonia adds to the C atom adn water is lost
N atom double bonded to to a C atom
in Carbonyl - ketones and aldehydes
example of condensation reaction because small molecule is lost during formation of a bond between 2 molecules.
also a nucleophilic subsection reaction
immines and other N groups can undergo tautomeization to form
enamines, which contain both a double bond and a N containing group
when HCN (triple bonds and electroneg N atom)reacts with an aldehyde or ketone
cyanohydrin is produced, which is a stable product (C-C bond)
oxidation and reduction spectrum
aldehydes are more oxidized than alcohol, but less than carboxylic acids. Ketones are as oxidized as secondary carbons can get.
when aldehydes are further oxidized
form carboyxlic acid
with KMnO4, CRO3 Ag2O, H2O2
carboxylic acid
r group to a double bond oxygen adn carbonyl C to an alcohol group.
hydride reagents
aldehydes and ketones undergo reduction to form alcohol. LiAlH4 and NABH4
alpha carbon
adjacent to the carbonyl carbon adn the hydrogens connected to alpha C are termed alpha hydrogens.
easy to deprornoate alpha carbon of an aldehyde and ketone because oxygens pulls some electron density away fro the C-H bonds making them weak
acidity of alpha hydrogens
by resonance stabilization of the conjugate base and also inductive effects. The electronegative oxygen atom pulls electron density away from C-H bonds, weakening it. Once deprotonaed, resonance stabilization of the neg charge between alpha C , carbon C and electron withdrawing carbonyl oxygen increases the stability of this form
the alpha. hydrogens of aldehydes and more acidic than those of
ketones. due to electron donating char of the second alkyl group in ketones. This extra alkyl group destabilizes the carbanion (intermediate with lone pairs instead of H) and disfavors loss of alpha H in ketones compared to aldehydes . Pentanal is stronger acid than pentagon and will have a lower pKA
aldehydes are more reactive to nucleus than ketones
due to steric hinderance in ketones- arise from additional alkyl groups that ketones contain (in teh way more so than the aldehyde H)
ketones create a higher E intermedate so less likely to proceed
enol
C to C double bond and an alcohol. Due to teh acidity of the alpha H, aldehydes and ketones exist in solution as a mixture of 2 isomers- keto and enol form
tautomers
the 2 isomers (keto and enology) differe in placement of proton and double bond. Far more keto than enols because thats where equilibrium lies.
enoization/tautomerization
interconverting the keto to enroll tautomer.
enoate carbanians act as
nucleophiles- Michael addiition
carbanan attacks an alpha beta unsaturation carboxyl compound
kinetic enolates
form rapidly and can interconvert with teh thermodynamic form – favored by fast, irreversible reactions such as with a strong statically hindered base and low temp
less stable
double bond to the less sub alpha C
thermodyanmic enolate
favored by slower reversible reactions with weaker or small bases and higher temperatures
enamines
tautomers of imines (C=N bond) N may be bound to another alkyl group through tautomerization (movement of a hydrogen nd a double bond) , imines can be converted into enamines
aldol condensation
generally the same as a nucleophilic addition to a carbonyl , but an aldehyde or ketone acts both as a electrophile (in its keto form) and a nucleophile (in its enolate form) - results in C-C bond.
retro adol reaction is the
reverse of an aldol reaction where instead of a bond btween alpha and beta C of a carbonyl , it is broken. This can be favored by the addition of base and heat.
aldol condensation Is a ___ reaction
condensation. 2 molecules are joined to form a single moelcule with the loss of a small molecule
dehydration rection
molecule of water is lost
nucleophile-electrophile reaction
in which a nucleophile pushes an electron pair to form a bond with an electrophile.
lewis acid
electron acceptor in the formation of a covalent bond
tend to be electrophiles
vacant p orbital where they can accept electron pair
lewis bse
electron donor in the formaiton of a covalent bond
nucleophilies
have lone pairs that can be donated- negative charges
coordinate covalent bonds
covalent bonds in which both electrons in the bond came from teh same starting atom (Lewis base)
bronsted lowry acid and base
acid that can donate a proton
base- accept a proton
amphoteric
water- act as bronsted lowry acid and base
electrostatics
study of stationary charges and the forces that are created by and which act upon these charges.
matter
electrically neutral
unit of charge
coloumb e = 1.6 x 10-19 C both proton adn electron have this charge, but proton is posotive and electron is negative proton has greater mass electrons greater acceleration
insulators
will not easily distribute a charge over its surface and will not transfer the charge to another neural object or another insulator.
electrons closely linked with nuclei
nonmetals
glass, hair, water
conductors
charges will distribute evenly upon teh surface of the conductor. Able to turner and transport charges and are often used in circuits
metals
blood, copper, iron
coulombs law
Fe = kqq/r^2
k=9x10^9
every electric charge sets up a surrodnign electro field
electric fields exert forces on other charges hat move into the space of the field.
E = kQ/r^2 = Fe/q
electric field midway meteen 2 negative charges
would be 0 because they are the same charges and cancel out midpoint
negaive electrostatic force
points from 1 charge to the other (attaractive)
positive electrostatic force
points from 1 charge away from the other (repulsive)
direction of the electric field given as teh
direction that a positive test charge would move in teh presence of a source charge. Positive- point outward and negtauve- point inward
field lines- used to draw this- closer tg = stronger
electric potentil energy
E = kQq/r
depends on teh relative position of one charge with respect to another charge
if both charges the same (+ and + or - and -) then potential energy will be positive
negative charge and positive
unlike charges, more attractive, closer= more stable, negative potential energy
2 positive charges
repulsive, potential energy is positive , repel adn therefore closer they are- less stable
if both particles have teh same charge
electric potential E decreases as distance increases. if iopposite charges - increases PE as distance increases
electrical potential E is Couloumbds law multiplied by
distance
Volts = kQ/r
yes
electropotential
ratio of a charge’s electrical potential energy to the magnutide of the charge itself
voltage/potential difference
measure in the change of electric potential between 2 points, which provides an indicator of the tendency toward movement in one direction or the other
charg will minimize potential energy
yes
equpotential line
potential at every point is the same . sets of points and fdifference between them is the same
no voltage or acceleration
potential difference
electric dipole
separation of charge within a molecule such that there is a permeant or temporary region of equal adn opposite charge at a particular distance
V= kd/r^2
electric field
need a charge
magnetic field
charge that also moves
magnetic force
external electric field acting on a charge moving any direction except parallel to the external field
condensation reaction
two molecules into one with teh loss of water
carboxylic acids are formed this way
carboxylic acids
amides, esters and anhydrides
replace the OH on the carboxyl group with another leaving group
amides
RCONR2 formula- just NH
replace -oic acid with -amide
substituetns on teh nitrogen atom are listed as prefixes and their location is specified with the letter N. synthesized with carboxylic acids adn ammonia/amide
loss of H from the nucleophile
ex. N,N-dimethylethanamide
cyclic amides
lactans
beta- bond between b carbon and teh nitrogen
ester
dehydration synthesis products of other carboxylic acid derivatives and alcoholics
esterifying group(sub bonded to O) as a prefix
-oate relates -oic acid
ethyl ethanoate
triglycerides - storage form of fats in the body: esters of long chain carboxylic acids
cyclic esters
lactones
sponification
the process by which fats are hydrolyzed under basic conditions to produce soap
anhydrides
condensation of dimers of carboxylic acids
RC(O)OC(O)R
symmetrical anhydrides- name acid instead of anhydride at end (ortho-phthalic acid)
formed y heating carboxylic acids and driven forward by increased stability of newly formed rings (5 or 6 ring)
high BP
alcohols can act as nuc to anhydrides to form esters and carboxylic acids
anhydrides can be reverted back to caroboxylic acid by exposing them to water
steric hinderance
describes when a reaction doe snot proceed due to teh size of the sub
affect ability of the nuc to access the carbonyl carbon thus affects reactivity
induction
distortion of charge across sigma bonds
dipole
electrons attracted to atoms that are more electroneg, generating a dipole
carboxylic acids groups to nuceophooc attacks
carboxylic reactive groups
anhydride, esters, amides
anhydrides are stable with resonance and electron withdrawing O is very electrophilic
amides- electrons donating amino group
conjugation
presence of alternating single and multile bonds
lactams and lactones are more reactive to hydrolysis because they
contain more strain
torsional strain from eclipsing interaction and angle strain from compressing sp3 angle
in the formation of amide from ammonia and an anhydrde
nucleophile - ammonia
electrophile- one of the carbonyl C of the anhydride
alc also nuclei to anhydrides
tranesterifcation
exchange of one esterfying group for another in an ester
reaction requires an alchol as a nucleus
ethyl group of the alc replace the isopropyl butonate
strongly acidic conditions catalyze amide hydrolysis by
protonating the oxygen in teh carbonyl
increases the electrophilcity of the Carbon, making it more susceptible to nuclear attacks
snucleophilic acyl substation attack of teh carbonyl carbon results in the
displacement of a LG
formation of amides from nuc sub reactions between ammonia and any carboxylic acid- - also a cleavage reaction because splits anhydride
strongly basic conditions catalyze amide hydrolysis by
increasing the concentration of -OH, which can act as a nuc on amide carbonyl
amino acids
contain an amino group (NH2) and a carboxyl group attached to a single carbon atom (alpha C)
other 2 sub are a H atom and a R group
alpha C is chiral (stereogenic center) besides for glycine because r group is H
amino acids are chiral so they are
optically active and L isomers
have S configuration except for cusstein which is R
amino acid characteristics
acidic carboxyl group and basic amino group are amphoteric molecules
act as both acid and bases! amino groups can take on positive charge by being protonated and carboxyl groups can take on negative charge when deprotonated.
when an amino acid is put in positive and negative charges
take on both and form a zwitterion
amono acids are grouped into 5 categoties
non polar aromatic, aromatic, polar, negatively charged (acidic) and positively charged (basic)
non polar aromatic
side chains saturated by hydrocarbons like alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine and also glycine and proline and met
aromatic amino acids
tryptophan, phenylalamine, tyrosine
nonpolar amino acids
hydrophobic
can be aromatic or not
interior or proteins
polar amino acid
terminal groups containing oxygen, N, sulfur- serine, threonine, asp , glutamic, cysteine
negtaively charged amino acids
aspartic acid and glutameric acid terminal carboxylate anions in their R groups
positively charged amino group
arg, lysine, his have a protonated amino group in their R groups
polar acidic and basic amino acids are all
hydrophilic and tend to form H bonds with water
amino acids undergo condensation reactions to form
peptide bonds (through polypeptides) are the base unit of proteins hydrolysis of pteptide bonds is catalyzed by a strong acid or base
C-N bond of an amide is
planar because it has a double bond characteristic due to resonance. Double bonds exist in a planar configuration and restrict movement.
stecker synthesis
one starts with an aldehde, ammonium chloride and potassium cycanide. Carbonyl oxygen is protonated, increasing electrophilicty of teh carbonyl carbon. Ammonia attack carbonyl C to form an immine which is susceptible for a nuc attack and CN- anion from KCN attacks forming Nitrile group (-C triple bond to N)
final molecule is a aminonitrile- NH2 (amino group) and a nitrile group.
water used to hydrolyze aminonitrile to form the amino acid
a condensation reaction (formation of imine from a carbonyl containing cmpd and ammonia with loss of water) followed by nuc addition(adition of nitrile group) followed by hydrolysis
Gabriel Synthesis
proceeds through 2 SN2 reactions, hydrolysis and decarboxylation
begins with potassium phthalimide and diethyl bromomalonate , followed by an alkyl halide. Water is then used to hydrolyze the resulting cmpd to form teh amino acid. acid and bases as catalyst.
phosphoric acid
forms the high energy bonds that carry E in ATP
inrognaic phosphate or phosphate group AKA
ha a very negative charge. when bonded to other phosphate groups in a nucleotide triphosphate, this creates repulsion with adjacent phosphate groups , increases E of the bond
can be resonance stabeized
organic phosophates
C containing molecules with phosphate groups like DNA, ATP, GTP
the 3 H in phosphoric acid have very different pkA values - allows phosphoric acid to
pick up or give off protons in wide pH range/ good buffer
extraction
the transfer of dissolved compound (desired product) from a starting solution into a solvent in which the product is more soluble
like dissolves like- polarity
step 1: 2 solvents are immiscible (2 layers that do not mix), different polarities or basic base properties so that a compound of interest ins dissolve more easily In one than the other
repertory funnel - denser layers sink to the bottom (organic layer on top) and drain inorganic from the bottom. Keep adding teh solute (water), shake, settle, exact - multiple extractions is best
desire product + water- rotary evaporator evaporates water
acid and bases
dissovle more easily in opposite acid base char. ex. acid dissolves more easily in base as it creates a conjugate base and highly charged (soluable)
distillation
takes advanatge of BP in order to seperate solutions of miscible liquids by evaporation adn condensation
lower BP- vaporize first - condenses as liquid and drips down into a vessel (distillate). heating temp kept low so that the liquid with teh high BP will nt be able to make it distillate container
filtration
isolates a solid from a liquid
residue (left behind-solid) adn filtrate (liquid)
recrystallization
further purifying crystals in solution
dissolve product in hot solvent and let it recrystaize as it cools - desired product will recrysalize at this specifi chigh temp and imurities will remain liquid
simple distillation
described above.
between temp 150 C and 25 C
vaccum distillation
distil a liquid with a BP over 150 C
vaccumn lowers ambient pressure, decreasing the temp that the liquid must reach in order to have a good vapor pressure to boil
can distill compoudsn with high BP at lower temp
fractional distilzation 1
seperate 2 lipid with similar BP (less than 25 degrees apart_
chromatogaphy
key: more similar a compound is to its surroudnings (polar, charge, ) more it will stick to and move slowly through its surroundings
ion exchange chromatgraphy
the column is given a charge, which attarcts molecules with teh opposite charge
size exclusionc hromatgraphy
small pores are used- smaller moleucles are trapped while larger molecules pass through teh column
affinity chromatography
spceific receptors or antibodies can trap the target of teh column; target must then be washed out using other solutons
gas chromatography
mpbiel and sationary phase with gas instead of liquid
stationary - metal (where the sample is placed) ad then it is run through a stationary phase (liquid or gas) and will displace or elute teh sample adn will adhere to the stationary phase at differing strengths substances migrate at different speeds- isolate them (partionining)
mass spec
molecular eight determination: ionization and fragmentation of compounds in an magnetic field and separates based on mass to charge ratio
high performance liquid chromatography
HPLC.used to be with high pressure but now performed with a solvent and temp gradients, specific separation
carboylic acids
nucleophiles, electrophiles, acids (give away protons)
very stable and acidic
hydrogen bnding - so High BP an intermolecular forces
-oic acid
highest priority functional group
cyclic carboxylic acids
suffix carboxylic aci
carboxylic acid properties
simila to aldehydes and ketones
but another acidic H to participate in runs and hydrogen bond
polar- contain carbonyl group
hydrogen bond bc contain H bonded to electroneg hydroxyl O
form dimers because of high intermolecular attraction- connected via hydrogen bond
acidic so negative charge
haev a stable conjugate base, easier for proton to leave, stonger acid
electron withdrawing sub makes the anion
more syable and therefore increase acidity
electron donating sub destabilize the anion and casue the carboxylic acid to be less acidic- closer sub us to carboxylic acid, stronger effect
photoelectric effect
when light with a sufficient high frequency is incident on a metal on a vacuum, the metal atoms emit electrons, producing a net charge (current)
light beams of greater intensity produce
a larger current , larger electrons liberated from the metal
when the lights frequency is above the threshold frequency, the magnitude of the resulting current is directly proportional to
the intensity (amplitude) of the light beam
threshold freqency
minmum frequency to cause ejection of electrons. depends on type of metal.
all or none response. if less than threshold, no response
Photons
light quanta
energy of photons equation
E= hf
E- energy of photon go light
h- planks constants (6.626 x10^-34)
f- frequency of light
wavelength and frequency equation
c = wavelength x frequency
c- speed of light - 3 x 10^ 8
waves with higher frequency have shorter wavelengths
when electrons are ejected, excess energy is connected to kinetic energy
Kmax = hf-W
W- work
work
minimum energy required to eject an electrtron. any excess turns into kinetic e
W= hf(t
f(t)- threshold freqneyc
Bohr model of an atom
atomic absorption
electron energy levels are stable and discrete, corresponding to specific orbits. An electron can jump from a lower E state to a higher E state by absorbing a photon of light of right frequency to match teh difference between orbits (E= hf)
when an electron falls from higher E state to lower E state
emits photon with energy equal to teh energy difference between 2 orbits
atomic emission
IV spectra
used to find chemical structure because different bonds will absorb different wavelengths of light
UV vis spec
looks at absorption of light in teh visible and UV range.
change in molecular structure can cause shifts in absorption patterens
acid state- clear
basic state - bright pink- absorb all bu the longer wavelengths of visible light
can be protonated or deprotonated, double bond or aromatic
fluroence
excites with UV radiation, glow with visible light. Photons of UV light have high freuqnwcy (shorter waveengths). after being excited to a higher state by UV, electron in the fluorescent substance returns to its OG state and involves less energy as it goes down- photon is emitted with a lower frequencyy the UV. if within the visible range, glow
energ ydifference between ground state e and higher level e determines
the frequency of light a particualr material absorobs (absorption spectra)
mass defect
the mass of the nucleus is slighter smaller than just addign protons and neutrons. E = mc^2 E= energy m- mass c- speed of light
result of matter beign converted to energy (binding energy).
have a strong nuclear force, attacrt neutrons and protons together evenn tho repulsive.
fourfundamental forces of nature
strong and weak nuclear forces
electrostatic forces, gravitation
mass defect adn biding e
transformation of nuclear mass to E with a resultant loss of matter
E= mc ^2
nuclear reactions
fusion, fission and radioactive decay- combing or splitting of nuclei of atoms
intermediate sized atoms are most stable, when small atoms combine or large atoms split there is a lot of E released.
isotopic notation
elements are preceded by tehir atomic number as a subscript and mass number as a superscript
A - mass number- protons plus neutrons
X
Z- atomic number- number of protons
fusion
small nuclei combine to form larger nucleus
(hydrogen helium) - increase in nuclear mass during rection
fission
large nucleus splits into smaller nuclei.
(actinides, lanthanides)- decrease in nuclear mass during a reaction
radioactive decay
spontenous decay of certain nuclei accompanioned by the emission of specific particles
isoltop decay
X (parent nucleuse) goes through nuclear delay to form Y (daughter nucleus) + emitted decay particle
mass numbers and Tomic numbers must be the same on both sides of the equation- balance!
alpha decay
emission of alpha paticle
massive cmpared to the beta particle, double the charge
emission of alpha particle means that the atomic number of the daughter nuc will be 2 less than that of parent and parent number will be 4 less.
-4- A
X (alpha) (He)
-2- Z
beta decay
emission of beta particle, or an electron. when a neutron decays into a proton.
rlly penetrating that alpha radiation
positron- mass of e but + charge
emitted: z = -1 (so add one to Z of parent) adn A=0– may emit antineutrino
opposite when protn to neuron (+1 so minus 1 to Z)
may emitneutrino in beta positive
gamma decay
gamma rays emitted, which are high energy / high frequency photons. carry no charge and simply lower the E of the parent nucleus without changing mass or atomic number.
electron capture
capture an inner electron that combines with a proton to forma neutron. Atomic Number is -1 (Z) than the original. reverse of beta decay
absorbs e-
half life
time it takes for half of the sample to decay
gamma radiation produces electromagnetic radtion
rather than nuclear fragments, it can be detected on an atomic absorption spectra.
reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from one chemical species to another
oxidation reduction (redox) reactions
oxidation
loss of electrongs
reduction
gain of electrons
oxidzing agent
causes another atom in a redox reaction to undergo oxidation and itself its reduced
reducing agent`
causes the other atom to be reduced and it self is oxidized.
OIL RIG
oxidation I sloss, reduction is gain
almost all oxiizing agents contain oxygen or another EN element
like a halogen
O2, H2So4
KMnO4 +
reducing agents
contain metal ions or hydrides (H-)
CO, C, B2H6
NADH
alcohols
ROH
-OH funcitonal group is hydroxyl
replace -e with -ol
if highest priority, alcohol receive lowest possible number. If not, named as subsitutient with hydroxy- prefix
phenols
alcohol rings hydroxyl Hydrogens are rlly acidic due to resonance within the phenol ring w groups on adjacent C- ortho seperate C- meta opposite sides of ring- para
physical properties of alc
hydrogen bonding (H attached to EN molecules like O, N, F) as a reuslt of extreme polarity higher MP and BP
hydroxyl H of phenols are more acidic tha those of other
alchols- due to teh aromatic nature of the ring and resonance stabilization of the negative charge on O
alcohols with highest BP
more hydroxyl moleucles, more H bonding
long chain has increased LDF forces ad therefore lower BP
electron withdrawin sub
increase acidity as electron donating groups decrease it
oxidation of primary alc to aldehydes
PCC. stops here bc PCC lacks the water necessary to hydrate the otherwise easily hydrated aldehyde
with other oxidizing agents, aldehydes are rapidly hydrated to form geminal diols (1,1-diols) which for carboxylic acids after oxidized again
secondary alc can be oxidized to ketones by
PCC or any stonger oxidizing agent
tertiary alc cannot be oxidized becasue they are already as oxides as they can be
without breaking a C-C bond
oxidation of primary alc with chromium VI (Na2Cr2O7 and K2Cr2O7) will produce
carboxylic acid and secondary alcohol to ketones
CrO3- Jones oxidation
oxidizing primary alc to carboxylic acids and secondary alc to ketones
hydroxyl groups are poor LG of
nuc sub reactions
if protonated or reacted with to form better LG
mesylate is a compound containing the functional group -SO3Ch3
Teslates: -So3C6H4Ch3- forming ester
also help with protecting groups
aldehydes or ketones can be reacted with 2 equvi of alcohol or diol to form
acetal or ketal- less reactive than aldehydes and ketones and thus proetct the functional group from reacting
treatment of penols with oxidizing agents
produce quinones
resonance stabilized electrophiles
sometimes aromatic
DKA
diabetic ketoacidosis
can arise from th result of the bodies metabolism of FA when insulin production shut down. FA are then metabolized into ketone bodies as an alt E source to glucose, some ketones producted are ketone acids and
irreversiable
reaction proceeds in 1 direction
determined by the Rate limiting reagent
reversible
forward or reverse
do not usually proceed through completion because products can react to form Reagan’s
forward= reverse
dyanmic equilibrium
forward and reverse reactions ae occuring
static equilbium
going a the same rate reactions in forward and back so no change in the concentration of the products or reagents
entropy
measure of the distribution E throughout a system or between a system and its environment
law of mass action
Keq= {C^C][D^D]/[A^A][B^b}
is the system is at equilbiurm
reaction quotient Q
same equation as K, but measures concentrations at any point in time
QKeq froward reaction has succeeded and reagents are lower concentration
Q and Keq
Q< Keq: forward reaction has not yet reached equilibrium
greater concentration of reactants
Q= keq: dynamic equilibrium and forward and reverse are equal
Q> Keq: forward reaction exceed equilibrium and product is more
the concentrations of pure liquids and l=solids do not appear
in teh equilibrium expression because based on activities of compounds not concentrations
equilibrium constant
is temperture dependent
larger Keq
other R the eqilibrium is
reverse reaction of equilibrium is
1/keq
Keq
= [products]/[reactants]
le chatliersqif stress i
s applied ot the sstem, the sstem shifts to relieve that applied stressed
at lower temp with a smaller heat transfer
a kinetic product forms
at higher temp with a larger heat transfer
thermodynamic prodict
density =
mass over volume (m/v)
kg/m^3 units
denisty of water
1 g/cm^3 = 1000 kg/m^3
Weight (Fg) =
density x volume x 9.8 (accelrtion due to gravity)
specific gravity
SG = density/1 g/cm^3/1 000 kg/m^3
pressure =
Force/Area
Pa= N/m^2
conversions between pressures
1.013 x 10^ 5 Pa = 760 mmHg = 760 torr= 1 atm
absolute hydrostatic pressure
total [ressure exerted on an object that is submerged in a fluid (liquids and gases)
P= P0 + density(9.8)(z)
z= depth
P0= ambiant pressure, pressure on the surface, mopstly atm
guage pressure
difference between teh absolute pressure inside somewhere and the atmospheric pressure outside the place
P gauge = P-Patm
density is directionless
therefore scalar
cohesion
attractrive force experienced by molecules ofr a fluid of the same
ahdesion
attractive forces experienced by molecules of a fluid for a sdifferent molecule
adhesive adn cohesive forces are equal
no meniscues form and liquid surface is flat
molarity
the number of moles of solute per liter of solution: 1 M = 1 mol/L
mol
item times avos number: 6.022 x 10^23
molarity times volume (in liters) equals
the number of moles of a substance that are present (mol = M × V).
millimolar (mM), micromolar (µM), and nanomolar (nM) concentrations
1 × 10-3 M, 1 × 10-6 M, and 1 × 10-9 M
adding salt to water causes BP of water to
increase, requiring a greater average kinetic energy of the liquid to produce a vapor pressure equal to the external pressure.
lowering melting point
boiling water
pressure of the atmosphere = pressure to vaporize
Vapor pressure
the pressure of the vapor phase that exists (to some degree) immediately above the surface of any liquid. A higher vapor pressure indicates that a larger number of solvent particles were able to escape the liquid and enter the gas phase. When vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure exerted on the liquid’s surface, the liquid will boil.
more solute particles causes a reduction in vapor pressure
BP = vapor pressure reduction
the lower the vapor pressure, the more energy that will be required to increase that vapor pressure to a level that matches the atmospheric pressure. In other words, the more solute particles present, the lower the vapor pressure, and the higher the boiling point.
freezing point depression
solute molecules disrupt the lattice structure of the frozen solvent, so more added solute corresponds to more “difficulty” freezing and a lower freezing point.
why solid ice is more dense than liquid
The bent structure of the water molecule and ratio of covalently-bonded hydrogens to lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen atom maximizes the hydrogen bonding that occurs in the solid phase, producing a hexagonal structure with large empty spaces.
negative slope bc solid less dense than liquid
SO32-
sulfite
SO42-
sulfate
Ionic compounds
one or more cations (positively-charged ions) paired with one or more anions (negatively-charged ion
no net overall charged
in β-minus decay, a neutron is converted to a proton as an electron is emitted.
define
Boiling chips
provide nucleation sites that give the liquid a place to start forming bubbles to prevent superheating
vacuum distillation
lower the boiling points of the substances to be distilled.
aldehydes have lwer boiling points than hydrogen bonding
aldehydes end in -al , hydrogen bonding/carb acid end in -oic acid
Formal charge =
of valence electrons - sticks - dots
N has
5 valence electrons
The preferred ion configuration of many elements
the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas; elements will gain or lose electrons until they have the same valence electron configuration as this noble gas.
complete octet
The attractive force of this positively-charged nucleus on the atom’s negatively-charged valence electrons is termed the effective nuclear charge (Zeff). `
As the number of protons in the nucleus increases from left to right across a period (or row) of the table, Zeff also increases, since each additional proton adds positive charge to the nucleus.
the atoms with the largest radii
bottom left
ionic radius
cations (positive ions) tend to have smaller ionic radii than the atomic radii of their corresponding uncharged elements. This is because an uncharged atom must lose one or more electrons to become positively charged. On the other hand, for anions (negative ions), the ionic radius is typically larger than the corresponding atomic radius, since these species must gain electrons, and thus become slightly larger, to take on their negative forms.
torque
frsin theta perpendicular sin (90)= 1
calculations
v = (6 mm) / (0.2 s) = 30 mm/s = 3 x 10-2 m/s
Competitive inhibitors increase the Km of their associated enzymatic reactions without altering the Vmax value,
fact
km
Km is the substrate concentration required to reach Vmax/2
Competitive inhibition is when the inhibitor directly competes with the substrate for the active site on the enzyme.
This increases Km since it now takes more substrate to ensure half of the active sites are occupied. If enough substrate is supplied, it will outcompete the inhibitor; therefore, Vmax does not change, although more substrate is needed to reach it.
noncompetitive inhibition,
Vmax is decreased. Since these inhibitors do not compete with the substrate, their activity is unaffected by substrate concentration. Since the inhibitor always affects a consistent proportion of the available enzyme, Vmax is reduced.
Uncompetitive inhibition
thereby decreasing Vmax. Km also decreases to exactly the same degree as Vmax.
N2
a very inert gas (Noble) and therefore unreactive
power
v^2/r
paraell
1/r + 1/r
terpenes
think hormones
IR peaks 1700-1750
C=O
Ir peaks 3200 3500
-OH
homotropic regulation
when a molecule serves as a substrate for its target enzyme, as well as a regulatory molecule of the enzyme’s activity. O2 is a homotropic allosteric modulator of hemoglobin. The four subunits of hemoglobin actually bind to oxygen cooperatively, meaning the binding of oxygen to one of the four subunits will increase the likelihood that the remaining sites will bind with oxygen as well. This is the cause of the sigmoidal curve shown in the figure.
indicator in pH
usually near ht desired pH
weak acid and strong base- around 9! or greater than 7
THIOL
R-SH
amide
[R(C=O)NR]
amine
(R-NR2)
ester
R(C=O)OR’
sulfoxide
[R–S(=O)–R’]
solid to liquid to gas
endothermic
absorbing heat
gas to liquid to solid
release heat, making them exothermic reactions
isomers
he same molecular formula) but different structural or spatial arrangements of these ingredients.
chain isomers
diff Skelton arrwangement
functional isomers
isomers where the molecular formula remains the same, but the type of functional group in the atom is changed. For example, a compound with an oxygen atom in addition to several carbon atoms and the corresponding number of hydrogens could be an alcohol with an –OH group, or an ether with a C–O–C group.
Positional isomers
given functional group in different locations (e.g., 1-pentanol vs. 2-pentanol).
Stereoisomers
involve different ways that substituents can be positioned. Cis (Z) -trans (E) isomerism
work
W = F⋅d⋅cos(θ)
delta KEf - KeI
which can equal PE ?
power=
work/time
Watt =
J/s
1 Kw
1000 J/s
(P = Fv)
constant force times constant velocoty
P = IV)
current and velocity
E = hc/λ,
h = Planck’s constant (6.62 x 10-34 J•s) C = speed of light = (3 x 108 m/s) E = given =
Cupric
“Cupric” tells us that we are using the Cu2+ (or copper [II]) cation.
highest Ka
A higher Ka is associated with stronger acidity.
dding electron-withdrawing functional groups (like fluorine atoms) provides inductive stabilization of the conjugate base by pulling electron density away from the negatively-charged position (shown below). This stabilization increases the acidity of the original compound. Inductive effects increase if the electron-withdrawing groups are closer to the acid and if more of them are present.
oxidative phosphorylation
phosphorylate ADP into ATP is final step
is the process in which ATP is formed as a result of the transfer of electrons from NADH or FADH 2 to O 2 by a series of electron carriers. This process, which takes place in mitochondria, is the major source of ATP in aerobic organisms
V = 2πr/T
yep
Fc = mv2/r
yes
suciice inhibitor
suicide inhibitor acts as an irreversible enzyme inhibitor.
occurs when an enzyme binds the inhibitor (structurally a substrate analogue) and forms an irreversible complex with it, usually through a covalent bond. This can involve the inhibitor being chemically modified by the enzyme during the normal course of catalysis to produce a reactive group that is specifically responsible for the formation of the irreversible inhibitor-enzyme complex.
only amino acid that is chiral is
glycine (G)
thin layer chromatography with a silica plate
polar substance will move slower on the plate due to polar-polar interactions between the substance and the plate. This means that the Rf value of a polar substance will be smaller than that of a nonpolar substance since the substance will move less on the plate compared to the solvent front than a nonpolar substance would.
imine
C=N
benzenes are
Benzene, the aromatic hydrocarbon shown below, is very stable (inert) in the presence of acids and bases and will not react with the reagents.
speed =
max flow rate x area
example- -screenshot
Pyruvate dehydrogenase
is the enzyme that mediates pyruvate decarboxylation. This step is the critical link between anaerobic and aerobic respiration. With this link broken, cells would be limited to anaerobic respiration. Thus, a decrease in aerobic respiration makes sense in this context
acetyl COA is product and NADH
geometric isomers
each of two or more compounds which differ from each other in the arrangement of groups with respect to a double bond, ring, or other rigid structure.
epimers
an epimer is one of a pair of diastereomers. The two epimers have opposite configuration at only one stereogenic center out of at least two. All other stereogenic centers in the molecules are the same in each.
anomers
An anomer is an epimer at the hemiacetal/hemiketal carbon in a cyclic saccharide, an atom called the anomeric carbon.
imide
n organic compound containing the group —CONHCO—, with double bonded Oxygens at end
urea
Nh2 on either side of the carboxylic acid
acetate
Ch3 to a carboxylic acid to a oxygen
ether
r-o-r
ester
r to carboxylic acid to oxygen to r
uv spec
measures conjugation
double bonds
conjugation
Conjugation refers to the presence of alternating double bonds within the structure of an organic molecule. From its name alone, we can see that 1,3,5,7-octatetraene has such a structure.
ammeter
measures current
Moving from a lower to a higher energy level is associated with absorption of energy,
emission is associated with moving from higher to lowe
The question stem states that free radicals can cause cancer, which is a result of poorly regulated cell growth and division. Cancer is generally a product of mutations in DNA that disrupt these processes. Therefore, we must choose the answer that targets DNA.
nucleic acids
gamma particle
has no mass
alpha partlce
has the most mass with 2 protons and 2 neutrons
SDS page
SDS-PAGE is an electrophoretic technique which involves the binding of the anionic detergent SDS to a polypeptide chain. SDS binding denatures and imparts an even distribution of charge per unit mass to the protein, resulting in fractionation by approximate size alone during electrophoresis.
D and L are
releative configurations
R and S
absolute configurations
weak acid
HF due to covalent bonding
galvanic cells
The passage states that the cell is meant to act like a galvanic cell, meaning that it proceeds in a spontaneous fashion. Since galvanic cells always have cell potentials that are greater than 0, we can eliminate any negative options
calcium carbonate
CaCO3
Phosphorous acid
H3PO3
Phosphoric acid
H3PO4
perphosphoric acid.
H3PO5
hypophosphorous acid.
H3PO2
