Bio-biochem Flashcards
cell theory our basic tenets
all living things are composed of cells
the cell is the basic functional unit of life
cells arise only from preexisting cells
cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA and it is passed on from parent to daughter cell
eukaryotic cells characteristics
nueclus enclosed inside a membrane and unicellular or multicellular
prokaryotic cells char
do not contain a nucleus, always single cells
importance of membrane bound organelles
compartmentalization of function
membranes are made up of a
phospholipid bilayer. Inside is hydrophilic (likes water) and outside is hydrophobic (hates water– selective barrier)
cytosol
allows for diffusion of molecules throughout the cell
nucleus
genetic material is encoded in DNA which is organized into chromosonmes and kept in nuc
control center of the cell
nucleus is surrounded by:
nuclear membrane or envelope, a double membrane that maintains a nuclear environment separate and distinct rom the cytoplasm
nuclear pores
in the nuclear membrane which allows selective 2 way exchange of material between nucleus and cytoplasm
linear DNA is wrapped around
histones
histones are wrapped together to form
chromosomes
nucelolus
subsection of the nucleus where rRNA is synthesized.
mitochondria layers
outer and inner membrane
outer memrbane
barrier between the cytosol and the inner environment of the mito `
cristae
inner foldings of the inner membrane of the mito
increase surface area for electronic transport chain electrons
space between inner and outer mito membranes
inter membrane space
space aside the inner membrane
matrix
mitochondria purpose
involved with ATP production and apoptosis
nucleus purpose
stores genetic information and is the site of transcription
lysosomes
break down cellular waste products and molecules ingested by endocytosis- also involved with apop
has hydrolytic enzymes that break down substances
RER
synthesizes proteins destined for secretion
continuous from the nuclear envelope
studded with ribosomes (translates proteins)
SER
involved with lipid synthesis and detoxification
GOLGI
packages, modifies (addition of groups like carb, phosphates, sulfates or introduce signal sequences) and distributes cellular processes
stacked membrane sacs
ER to Golgi via vesicles
peroxisomes
break down very long chain fatty acids (via beta oxidation), synthesis lipids and contribute to the pentose phosphate pathway
contain hydrogen peroxide
extranuclear inherientence
mito does this- the transmission of genetic material independent of the nucleus
endosomes
work with lysosomes in transporting, packages and sorting cell material from the membrane
cytoskelton
structure to cell and helps maintain its shape
components of cytoskelton
microfilaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments
microfilaments
composed of actin.
compression and fracture resistant, protect cells
interact with myosin and ATP to move in muscle contraction
play a role in cytokinesis (division of material between daughter cells– pinching off in ring)
microtubules
composed of tubular
hollow
motor proteins like kinesis and dynnein carry vesicles
examples of tubules are cilia and flagella
intermediate filaments are composed of
depends on cell type- either keratin, design, vimentin and lamins
involved with cell to cell adhesion or maintenance of overall integrity
tension held, increase rigidity of the cell
help anchor nucleus to membrane
centrioles consist of
nine triplets of microtubules around a hollow center
flagella consists of
nine doublets on the outside, with two microtubules on the inside
epithelial cell types
endothelial cells and alpha cells
connective tissue cells (basement membrane)
fibroblasts, osteoblasts, chondroblasts
provide support and framework for epithelial cells
cilia and flagella both have the same structure
9 +2: nine pairs of microtubuleson outside and 2 microtubules in center
centrioles
organizing centers of the microtubules— they are the hollow center
in mitosis
microtubules expand from centrioles attached to chromosome via kinetochores and spread sister chromatids apart
epithelial cells purpose
protection against pathogen invasion and desiccation, line the body
involved in absorption, recreation an sensation
tightly together and bind with basement membrane
parenchyma
the functional parts of an organ are made up of epithelial cells, like the nephrons in the kidney
simple epithelia have
1 layer of cells
strafed epiehtlia have
many layers
psyedostratified epihetlic
appear to have many layers due to their differences in heights, but rlly 1 layer
connective tissue contribute to
stroma or support structure
bone, cartildge, tendons, ligaments, adipose tissue and blood
form extracellular matrix through secreting collagen and elastin
prokayrotes have circular DNA located in the
nucleoid region
archea and bacteria both contain
prokayarotes
archae
single celled organisms that are similar to bacteria, but contain genes and many metabolite pathways more similar to eukaryotes
harsh environments
alternative sources of energy- photosynthetic, chemosynthetic, etc.
eukaryote and archaea both share
MET as translation, contain similar RNA polymerases and have DNA with histones
all bacteria contain
cell membrane and cytoplasm, and some have flagella or fimbriae
bacteria shapes
cocci (spheres), bacilli (tubes), and spirlli (looks like twisted rope)
obligate aerobes
bacteria that need O2 for survival
anaerobes
no o2, use fermentation
cannot survive in O2 setting- obligate anaerobes
obligate anaerobes
cannot survive in O2 setting- create radicals
facultative anaerobes
use o2 when present then switch to anaerobic mechanisms if necessary
aerotolerant anaerobes
unable to use oxygen for metabolism bu are not harmed by it
prok lack
nucleus and membrane bound organelles
single celled! they are!
cell envelope
cell wall and cell membrane together
cell wall
provides structure and controls the movement of solutes into and out of the bacterium
types of cell wall
gram positive (absorbs violet stain) and gram negative (does not absorb stain, bu does safranin and appears pink)
gram positive walls
contain peptidoglycan, a polymeric stance made om amino acids and sugars.protection and immunity
also contains lipotecichoic acid
gram negative walls
rlly thin and also contain peptidoglycan, but in smaller amounts.
have outer membrane with phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides (immune response much bigger than in positive walls)
flagella
whip like projections to move away from toxins or to food
chemotaxis
ability of cell to move to or away from chemical stiujmli and detect it
bacterial flagella vs. eukaryote flagella
eukaryote contain microtubules composed of tubulin, in. a9+2 arrangement, bacterial flagella are made of flagellin and consist of filament, basal body and hook
binary fission
asexual reproduction seen in prokaryotes - circa;ar chromsomes attaches to wall and replicates while cell grows in size and then cell wall and membrane grow inward and split aMong midlien
2 identical daughter cells
plasmids
extrachromosomal material in bacteria
carry antibiotic resistance
some benefit, like toxins or virulence factors (increase pathogencitiy)
episomes
type of plasmid that integrates not genome of bacteria
bacteria genetic recombination purpose and steps
increase bacterial diversity and permit evolution
transformation, conjugation and trasduction
transformation
integration of foreign genetic material into the host genome
mostly from bacteria that upon lysing, spill their contents into other bacterium
conjugation
bacteria form of mating- sexual reproduction
2 cells that form a conjugation bridge and transfer genetic material between them – unidirectional (donor male to recipient female). Bridge made from sex pili from the male (F factor + and if dont have it they are F-). The sex factor is a plasmid, but through transformation cab be integrated into host genome (deemed Hfr)
transduction
contains a vector- a virus that carries genetic material from 1 bacterium to another. cannot reproduce outside of hist cell, so bacteriophages can be incorporated into DNA in assembly. then it can release its trapped DNA into new host ell and integrate it for more genes.
transposons
genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themelsves from the genome. prok and eukaryote.
bacteria growth
lag phase- adapt to new environment
exponential phase or log phase- division increases, increase in number of bacteria in colonu
stationary phase- reduction in resources due to this reproduction, and therefore it slows down
death phase- after bacteria have exceeded the ability of the environment to support them
viruses are composed of
genetic material, protein coat (capsid), sometimes an envelope containing lipids (easy to kill because sensitive)
genetic material can be circular or linear, single or double, composed of either DNA or RNA
because viruses cannot reproduce independently they are considered
obligate intracellular parasites. must express and replicate genetic information in. host cell because they lack ribosomes to carry out protein synthesis.
viral prodigy
virions
bacteriophages
viruses that target bacteria. inject genetic material, dont enter. tail sheath acts as a syringe and tail fibers help connect virus to bacteria
positive sense
genome may be directly translated to functional proteins by the ribosomes of the host cell, just like mRNA
single stranded RNA viruses can be
positive or negative sense
negative sense
Rna viruses are complex- negative sense RNA acts as a template for synthesis of complementary stand, which Is used for a template for protein synthesis
carry RNA replies in the virion to ensure complementary strand is being synthesized.
retoviruses
enveloped, single stranded RNA viruses- virion contains 2 RNA mc.
carry reverse transcriptase, which syntheses DNA from single stranded RNA and DNA integrated into host cell and replicated as if host’s own DNA.
HIV
only way to remove infection is to kill the cell.
prions
cause diseases by triggering misfolding of other proteins, usually from converting them from an alpha helix structure to a b pleated sheet. cell cannot degrade and insolubility. aggregates for,.
viroids
very short circular single stranded RNA that infect plants
lytic cycle
bacteriophages replicate in the host cell in high numbers until hose cell lyses and releases virions.
lysogenic cycle
bacteriophage enters the host genome and replicates with the host cell as provirus. provirus can leave host genome and used to synthesize new virions.
diploid
2n- two copies of each chromosome. autosomal cells are diploid. 46 in humans
haploid cells
germ cells. (n)- containing on only one copy of each chromosome. 23 in humans (from each parent we inherit 23)
cell cycle
a specific series of phases during which a cell grows, synthesizes DNA and divides. Derangements can lead to unchecked cell division and cancer. Stages are G1, S, G2 and M
interphase
G1, S and G2. Longest part of the cell cycle. Chromsones are in less condensed form and called chromatin, so that genes are available for RNA poly to be transcribed. During mitosis, DNA is tightly condensed to chromosomes to avoid losing any genetic material during cell division.
cells that do not divide spend all their time in an offshoot of G1, called G0
cell is simply living and carrying out its functions without any prep for division.
G1 stage
cells create organelles for energy and protein production (mito, ri, ER), while also increasing size. In order to get into S phase, go through restriction point, which checks if the cell has the proper complement of DNA (DNA good enough for synthesis). If not good enough, then cel goes into arrest until RNA repaired- main protein is p53
S stage
cell replicates its genetic material so that each daughter cel will have identical copies. after, each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids that are bound together by a centromere. Still 46 chromosomes.
G2 stage
cell passes through another quality control checkpoint. DNA is duplicated and cell checks to ensure enough organelles and cyto for 2 daughter cells. Also checks for error in DNA replication. p53 plays role here.
M Stage
Mitoriss and cytokinesis. Mit is divided into 4 stages-prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Cytokinesis is the splitting of the cyto and organelles bw the two daughter cells. Somatic cells- cells not for sexual reproduction.
molecules responsible for cell cycle
cyclins and cyclins-dependent kinases (CDK). CDK activated with cyclins present and phosphorylate TF (transcribe genes required for next stages). Binding fluctuates in cell cycle.
cancer
when cell cycle control becomes deranged and damaged cells under mitosis, cancer happens. mutations in cancer are with p53 production gene, TP53. when mutated, cell is not stopped to repair damaged DNA and mutations accumulate and cell divides cont- creating tumors. can start to reach other tissues and invade in blood stream or lymphatic system- metastasis
prophase
condensation of the chromatin into chromosomes. centriole pairs separate and more toward opposite poles of the cell. these paired organelles are located in the centrosomes. Centrioles migrate to ends of cells and form spindle fibers, made of microtubules.nuclear membrane dissolves during prophase and these spindle fibers connect to chromosomes . nucleoii dispeappar. kinetochores- attachment points for fibers of the spindle on the centrosome.
metaphase
centriole pairs are now at opposite ends, kinetochores align chromosomes at meta plate (equatorial plate, between two poles
anaphase
centromeres spoilt so that each chromatid has its own distinct centromere, sister chromatids seperate, shortening kinetochores pull to opposite poles
telophase
reverse of prophase. spindle apparatus gone. nuclear membrane reforms around chromosomes and nucleoli appears. chromosomes uncoil with interphase form. each of the two new nuclei receive a copy of the genome identical to the original genome and to each other
cytokinesis
end of telophase, separation of the cytoplasm and organelles, giving each daughter cell enough material to survive on its own.
meiosis
occurs in gametocytes (germ cells) and results in 4 nonidentical sex cells (gametes).
meiosis and mitosis similarities
genetic material duplicated, chromatin condensed to form chromosomes and microtubules emanating from centrioles are involved in dividing genetic material.
differences in meiosis compared to mitosis
mitosis- 1 round of replication and divsion
meoissi- one round of replication, 2 rounds of division
meiosis 1
homologous chrome being separated, creating haploid daughter cells– reductional division
meiosis 2
similar to mitosis- results in separation of sister chromatids with a change in ploy - equational division.
human genome has
23 homologous pairs of chromsomes (homologues), eacch contain 1 chromosomes from each parent. after s phase, there are 92 chromatids, 46 chromosomes and 23 homo pairs
meiosis prophase 1
same as mitosis except homologous chromosomes come tg and intertwine with synapsis. So each chromosome has 2 sister chromatids and 4 chromatids in a synaptic pair – tetrad.
chiasma
sister chromatids of the homologue chrome break at chiasma and exchange DNA in crossing over (single or double)
crossing over occurs in prophase 1 of
homologue chromosomes , not sister chromatids of same chromosome.
recombination
increasing variety of genetic combinations that can produced via gametogenesis.
linkage
tendency for genes to be inherited togehter- father away= not likely
because of crossing over
each daughter cell will have a unique pool of alleles. from a random mixture of paternal and material orign
metaphase 1
homologous pairs (tetrads) align on plate and each pair attaches to ONE (not 2 like mitosis) spindle fiber by kinetochore.
anaphase 1
each homologue pair operate- called disjunction. random with what chromosomes end up in either daughter cell.. segregation.
telophase 1
nuclear membrane reforms. each chromosome has 2 sister chromatids joined at centromere. cells are haploid (n- 23 chromasomes). cell divides into 2 daughter cells by cytokinesis and there may be interkinesis, chromosomes partially uncoil
meiosis 2
similar to mitosis- sister chromatids.
biological sex is determined by
the 23rd chromosomes
Ova carry the
x chrom
X chrom
can cause sex (x) linked disorders- carry most genetic info
males are termed
hemizygous . recessively inherited so F express much less than males (if males have it, they show it, cant hide it or be carriers like females)
Y Chrom SRY gene
sex determining region Y- codes for transcription factor that imitates tetis differentiation and male gonads. So without Y chromosomes, female.
testes:
seminiferous tubules and intersitutal cells of Leydig. Sperm is produced in seminiferous tubes and nourished by Sertoli cells. Cells of leydig secrete testeerone and other m sex H (androgens)
testes are located in the
scrotum. as sperm form, they pass through the epididymis and stored until ejculation. travel through vas deferent and enter ejaculatory duct in prostate gland.
spermatogensis
formation of haploid sperm through meiosis, occurs in semi tubes. diploid cells are known as spermatogonia.
production of female gamates
oogensies . all oogonia formed during detal development
primary oocyte
arrested in prophase 1/ at birth.
asecondary oocyte
arrested in metaphase 2. at first period. and polar body
acrosome
contains enzymes that are capable of penetrating the corona radiate and zone pellucid of the ovum, permitting fertilization to occur ,modified by Golgi.
androgens, like testetrone, lead to male sex differentiation. absence of androgens receptors is known as
andoren insentisitvity syndrome, leads to XY genotype with phenotypically female char
follicular
high FSH, high LH, drop then high estrogen and down progesterone. egg develop,s endometrial lining becomes vascular and glandular. regrowth
ovulation
egg is release from follicle int pweironeal cavity. high FSH and LH and Estrogen. down progesterone. high lH leads to ovulation, release of ovum from the ovary.
Luteal
corpus leutum produces progrestrone to maintain endometrium. low FSH, = LH, high estrogen and progesterone. prevent ovulation of too many eggs.
menses
shedding of endometrial living. down all H
FSH stimulates Sertoli cells and triggers sperm maturation as LH causes
intersisytal cells to produce T
estrogen is secreted in response to FSH
leads to thickinign of endometrium and secondary char.
progesterone
secreted by the corpus letueum in response to LH. involved with deveopmetn and maintenance of endometrium.
menstrual cycle
follicular phase, ovulation, luteal and menses
pregnancy
hCG will be secreted- keeps lining in place by nurturing corpus leutum which keeps progrestrone and estrogen working. placenta takes over hCG ‘s job
menopause
ovaries less sensitize to FSH and LH, ovarian atrophy. drop in progresterone and estrogen lead to endometrium down leads to no period.
amino acids
contain an amino group (NH2) and a carboxyl group (COOH). alpha carbon is where these groups attach to , the carboxylic acid carbon, central carbon.Also has a H and a side chain (R Group) attached to the central C. R group is specific to each amino acid
alpha C
chiral/stereogenic center, as it has 4 diff groups attached to it. most amino acids are optimally active. Exception is glycine, which has H as an R group and makes it achiral. All amino acids (but cystin) are L-amino acids and S confirguartion.
amino acids with polar, nonromantic side chains
glycine (small), alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, proline
amino acids with aromatic side chains
tryptophan, phenylamnine, tyrosine
amino acids with polar side chains
serine, threonine, asparagine, glutamine, cysteine
amino acid with negatively charged side chains
aspartic acid, glutamic acid
amino acids with positively charged side chains
ariginine, lysine, histidine
hydrophobic
all AA with long alkyl side chains (alanine, leucine, isoleucine, valine and phenyalanine)— founds interior of proteins away from water
hydrophilic
all aa with charged side chains- + charged histidine, arginine, lysine and - charged glutamate and aspartate as well as aspatartic and glutamic acid
Abbreivations
Alanine- Ala- A Arigine- Arg- R Aparagine- Asn- N aspartic acid- asp- d cystiene-cys- c GLUTAMIC acid- glut-E Glutamine- Gln- Q glycine- Gly-G histidine- His- H isoleucine- Ile- I Leucine- Leu- L lysine- Lys- K metthionine- met- M phenylalanine- phe- f proline-pro-P serine- ser-S threonine- thr- T tryptophan- trp- W Tyrosine- Tyr-Y Valine-Val-V
amino acids, with both acidic carboxylic group and basic amino acid group
makes them amphoteric species- either accept a proton or donate a proton depending on the pH of the environment.
ionnzable groups tend to
gain protons under acidic coniditions and lose them in basic conditions.
at low pH= protonated
at high pH= deprotonated
the pKa of a group is the PH
at which half of the mc of that species are deprotonated
if pH is less than pKA = protonated
if PH is more than PKA= deproontated
amino acids have two pKa
pKa for carboxylic acid= 2
pKa= amino group= 9-10
ionizable side chains- have 3 pKa
at very acidic but above 2 value
pH will be +
zwitterions
7.5. Amino group is protonated so +, COOH- group is above so deporontated and -.
pI
isoelectric point- the Ph at which the mc Is electrically neutral
pI= PKA NH3 + group + pKA COOH group/2
peptides
amino acid subunits (residues)
dipeptides- 2 AA residues
tripeptides- 3
oligopeptide- small peptides up to about 20 residues while longer chains are called polypeptides
residues joined together via peptide bond– between -COO- soup of one aa and the NH3+ group of another aa
peptide bond formation
dehhydration or condensation reCTION BECUSE IT RESULTS IN THE REMOVAL OF WATER
electrophilic carbonyl carbon on the first a is attacked by nucleus amino group on second aa.
enzymes break apart of proteins by
breaking apart the amide bond by adding hydrogen atom to the amide nitrogen and an Oh group to the carbonyl carbon
primary protein level
linear barrage,net of amino acids in DNA. peptide bond
secondary
`hydrogen bonding between neighboring amino acids- alpha helixes and beta pleated sheets. hydrogen bonds
proline- kink in the peptide chain when found in the middle of an alpha helix
rarely found therefore, unlesss cell membrane. creates turns in beta sheets.
alpha helix is a rod like structure in which the peptide chain
coils clockwise around the central axis. b sheets the peptide chains lie alongside one another, rows together by hydrogen bonds
tertiary structure
3D shape of protein, hydrophobic interactions, acid-base salt bridges, disulfide links– bonds are LDF, H, optic and covalnt
quart structures
interaction between separate submits of a multisubunit protein, same bonds as quart.
moving Hydrophobic resides to the interior of a protein
increases entropy by allowing water molecules on the surface of the protein to have more possible conjurations .positive delta S makes delta G negative stabilizing proteins
prosthetic groups
lipids, carbs, NA— lipoproteins glycoproteins and nucleoproteins
direct protein and determine function
example is HEME group
denaturation
in which a protein does its 3D- heat and soluytes
higher heat =
unfolding
solutes
disrupt quart and tertiary structure by breaking disulfide bonds. reducing Cysteinem and breaks apart secondary structures
catalysts
enzymes- do not imp the thermodynamics of a biological reaction, delta H and equilibrium position do not change. . Increase reaction rate by lowering activation energy, increasing rate of reaction, not changed or consumed int eh reaction, are pH and temp sensitize, do not effect overall delta G and scenic for a particular reaction or class of reactions
enzyme specificty
a given enzyme will only catalyze a single reaction or class of reactions, with these usbtrates
oxidoreductases
catalyze oxidation- reduction raccoons- the transfer of electrons between molecules. Have electrons carriers like NADP+. Donor is known as reductant and electron acceptor is oxidant.
LIL HOT
ligase, isomerase, lyse, hydrolase, oxidoreductase, transferase
transferase
catalyze the movement of a functional group from one molecule to another. ex. moving an amino group. Kinases included, which transfer a phosphate group, from ATP, to another mc
hydrolases
catalyze the breaking of a compound into 2 mc using addition of water/- phosphates, peptidases, lipases etc
lyases
catalyze the clear of a single molecule into 2 products. not require water.
isomerases
catalyze the rearrangement of bonds within a molecule.
stereoisomers and constitutional isomers
ligases
catalyze addition or synthesis reactions, generally between large similar molecules and require ATP often. NA synthesis mostly
enzyme affects thermodynamics by:
energy states of the reaction.
enzyme affects kineticss by:
rate of reaction, how quickly a reaction gets to equilibrium but not the actual equilibrium state itself is touched.
lock and key theory vs. induced fit model
in lock and key it assumes active site (lock) is already in appropriate conformation for key to bind as in indices it, enzyme is a foam stress ball and substrate is a hand, they conform together.
cofactors
inorganic molecules or metal ions, ingested as dietary minerals, enzymes require these nonprotein molecules to be effective in catalysis
coenzymes
small organic groups, vitamins like NAD+, coenzyme A and DAS
{s}
concentration of the substrate –starts off increasing rlly high and then levels off as less enzyme becomes available with increasing substrate
Michalis-Menten equation
describes how the rate of thr reaction, v, depends on the convention of both the enzyme {E} and the substrate [s] which form [p]. enzyme substrate completes form at a rate Ki. The ES complex can either dissociate at a rate k-1 or E +P at rate K cat
v= vmax ([s])/ Km + [s]
Km= [s]
plot- v vs. [s], creating hyperbolic curve
Michaelis constant
Km- substrate concentration at which had of the enzymes active sites are full. measure of enzymes affinity for a substrate. as km increases, an enzymes affinity for a substrate decreases
when. substrate concentration is slo
an increase in [s] causes increase in enzyme activity. at high [s], enzyme is saturated and no effect on activity cause max is met
increasing [e] will always increase
max, regardless of starting concentration of enzyme
line weaver-burk plot
1/v vs. 1/[s], creating a straight line. same as mention plot
line weaver-burk plot x and y
x= -1/km, y = 1/vmax
enzyme cooperativty
interactions between subunits in a mulitsuunut enzyme or protein. the binding of substrate to one subunit induces a change in other subunits from the T (tense) state to the R (relaxed) state, which encourages binding of substate to others. in unbinding, R to T,
as temperature increases, enzyme activity generally increasing.
above body temp, enzyme cavity drops off as enzyme denatures. enzymes are max active within a small pH range, denatured if not. changes I salinity can disrupt bonds within an enzyme, causing distruption of tertiary and quart structures, lose of function
ideal temp for enzymes
37 degrees C= 310 K= 98.6 F
ideal pH for most enzymes is
7.4. for gastric enzymes: 2, pancreatic enzymes: 8.5
feedback inhibition
product of an enzymatic pathway turning off enzymes further bacteria kin that same pathway. maintain homeostasis as a product level rise, the pathway creating the product is downregulated
increases km
competetive inhibitor- sub concentration has to be higher to reach the max velocity in th presence of the inhibitor. a mixed inhibitor will increase km only if inhibitor partially binds to the enzyme over the enzyme substreate complex
irreversible inhibition
prolonged, permeant inactivation of an enzyme, cannot be renatured to gain function
transient modificationa- activated or deactivated enzymes
allosteric or inhibition
covalent modifcations- activated or deactivated enzymes
phosphorylation and glucosulation
zymogens are precursors of
active enzymes. critical for certain enzymes (digestive enzymes in the pancreas) remain inactive until arriving at target site.
neurons
specialized cells capable of transmitting electrical impulses and then translating those imputes into chemical signals.
neuron nuc is located in the
cell body, or soma
dendrites
received incoming messages from other neurons
axon hillocks
integrate the neuron signal- plays a role in AP, which transmit electrical impulses down a axon. Excitotry or inhibitory sugnals
axon
long appenadage that terminates in close proximity to a target structure
myelin
insulation of fat to prevent signal loss or crossing of signals. also increases speed and maintain electrical signals within 1 neuron. produced by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann cells in PNS
nodes of ranvier
small breaks in myelin sheath exposed axon membrane-critical for rapid signal conduction
nerve teerminal
max transmission of the signal to next neuron and release NT
nerve terminal, synpaticcleft and post synaptic membrane are known as
the synapse
multiple neurons may be bundled together t form a nerve
in the PNS- sensory, motor or mixed
collection of cell bodies at CNS is
nucleus
collection of cell bodies at PNS is
ganglion
astrocytes
nourish neurons and form BBB, which control transmission of solutes from bloodstream to tissues in nervous system
ependymal cells
Line the ventricles of the brain and produce cerebrospinal fluid, which support the brain and serves as shock absorber
microglia
phagocyte cells that ingest and break down wast products and pathogens in the CNS
olgiodenrocytes (CNS) and Schwaan cells (PNS)
produce myeline around axons
cells resting membrane potential
net electric potential difference that exists across cell membrane, created by movement of charged mc across membrane. -70 mV, inside more negative than outside
potassium is more
inside than outside - wants to move out. has potassium leak channels, slowly leak out and create neg inside and pos outside. however negative charge inside the cell attratcs pot to stay. electrical current vs. chemical gradient- equals! 1:1- so equilibrium potential of pot
around -90 mV
sodium is more
inside than outside- push to rush inside- sodium leak cahnelles. electrical potential pulls sodium back into cell. _60 mV
resting membrane poteital
between pot and sod- -70 mV
NA/K ATPASE
pump sodium and pot back to where they started- done by ATP
exhibitory input causes
depolarization- raising membrane potential frmresting and neuron more likely to fire
inhibitory input causes
lowering Mem poetical from its resting- hyperpolizartion and neuron less likely to fire AP
threshold value
-55 mV to -40 mV
many signals to a post from many pre synaptic
summation
types of summation
temoporal and spatial
temporal summation
many signals are integrated during short period of time. small excretory signals firing at some moment can bring cell to threshold
spatial summation
additive effects are based on number and location of signals- a large number of inhibitory signals firing directly on soma will cause a more profound hyperpolization of the axon hillock then the depolarization caused by a few excretory signals firing on the dendrites
AP
if cell is brought to threshold, voltage gated ion sodium channels open in the membrane in response to the change in potential (depol) and permit the passage of sodium ions - strong electrochemical gradient that promotes the migration of sodium into the cell. as well as gradient concentration because more out than in- so NA Rushes in. when Vm approaches +35, sodium channels are inactivated. This makes pot voltage gated channels to open and drive outside the cell through replorization. – makes th neuron refractory to further AP
absolute refractory period
no amount of stimulation can cause anther AP
relative refractory period
there must be a greater than normal stimulation to cause an AP because starting at even farther negtaive value I
IMPULSE propoganda
for a signal to be conveyed to another neuron, AP use travel down axon and imitate NT release- increased length of axon results in higher resistance and slower conduction. cross sectional allows for faster progofanda due to decreased resistance
salutary conduction
signal hops from node to node, nodes of ran view because myelin maximizes speed of transmission
Nt
stored in membrane bound vesicles in nerve terminal. when AP reaches, Ca channels open and allow Ca to flow into the cell ad trigger vesicles to let go of NT
ligand gated ion channel
deplorized or hyperpolizard
GPCR
change sin levels of cAMP or influx of Ca
removing NT
by enzymatic reactions, reupake carriers, diffuse out of synapse.
sensory neurons
afferent neurons - sensory receptors to brain and spine
motor neurons
efferent- transmit motor info from brain to msucels
interneurons
most numerous. Brin and spinal cord and reflex
brain white mater
axons with myeline sheath
grey matter brain
unmyelinate cell bodies and dendrites
spinal cord
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral
cell bodies of sensory neurons in
dorsal root ganglia
PNS connects CNS
to rest of bodylm
somatic system
sensory and motor neurons throughout skin, joints and muscles.
ANS
heartbeat, respiration, digestion, secretions- involtunary. , body temp
relfex arcs
controls reflexive behavior- internerons in spinal cord send out signals instead of waiting for the brain to do it
monosyantpic reflex arc
there isa single synapse between the sensory neurons that receives the stimulus and the motor neuron that responds to it- knee jerk reflex
polysnaptic reflex arc
at least 1 internerons between the sensory and Motor neurons- withdrawal effect when stepping on a nail– mono in which u will flex the hurt foot and pull away, bt to maintain balance, have to control other leg too
glands
secrete hormones
hormones
signalling molecules secreted directly into the bloodstream to distant target tissue. Bind to a receptor and cause a change in gene expression or cell function
hormones classified by chemical identifies
peptides, steroids, amino acid derivatives
peptides H
made up of aa, ranging from small to large (ADH to insulin). They are charged and cannot pass through the pm - bind to exxtraceullar receptor. Peptide H is considered first messenger, and triggers the transmission a second messenger – signaling cascade and ampliciation and signal intensity (activate many enzymes)
second messeners
cAMP and IP3 and Ca2+
peptide hormones are
rapid and short lived bc act through second messenger cascades- wicker to turn them off and on compared with steroid hormones
peptide H are water soluble and can travel freely in bloodstream and dont need carrier.
steroid hormones
lipid soluble.
derived from cholesterol- produced by gonads and adrenal cortex. Easily cross cell membrane because non polar. Receptors are therefore intracellular (in cytosol) or intranueuclar (in nucleus). Binding can cause conformational changes, like binding to DNA and result in increased or decreased transcription of genes.
conformational change can be dimerization, pairing of 2 receptors hormone complexes
slower and long lived- alter mRNA and protein present by direct action on DNA
steroid hormones are not
water soluble and need to be carried by proteins in the bloodstream - proteins can be specific and carry any 1, or general and many. must disscoiate from protein for H to function. levels of carrier proteins change the levels of active hormones
amino acid derivative H
epi, nor, triiodothyronine, thyroxine - derived from 1 or 2 amino acids and modification
catecholines (epi and nor) bind to GPCR and thyroid H bind intracellularly
direct H
secrets and direct bind onto a target tissye
insulin causes increased uptake of glucose by muscles
tropic hormones
rehire an intermediate to act
GnRH from hypothalamus stimulate the release of LH and FSH . LH acts on gonasd and stimulate testetrone
peptide and aa derivative H have names that end with -in
insulin, vasopressin, throne. many steroid hormones have names that end with -one, -ol, -oid (cortisol, testestrnoe)
endocrine glands
hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads, pineal gland
hypothalmuns
bridge between nervous and endocrine systems
regulates pit gland with tropic H.
in forebrain- above pt gland and below thalamus
controls pit gland by release of H into portal system
negative feedback
when a hormone later int eh pathway inhibits hormones earlier in the pathway
maintains homeeostatsis and conserves energy
the hypothalamus secretes compounds into the
hypophyseal portal system which is a blood vessel system that directs connects the hypothalamus with the anterior pit
hypothalamus secretes many tropic H
GnRh, RHRH, TRH, CRF
GnRH
gonadotropin-releasing H from hypothalamus– stimulate release of follicle stimulating H (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from anterior pit. target gonads (testes and ovaries) which release Testosterone and estrogen and progesterone
GHRH
growth hormone releasing hormone from hypothalamus,us stimulates release of GH (growth hormone) from anterior pit
bind to bone muscle
TRH
thyroid releasing hormone from hypothalamus and stimulates release of thyroid stimulating H (TSH) from anterior pit
targets the thyroid and released triiodothyronine and thyroxine
CRF
corticotropin releasing factor from hypothalamus stimulate release of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) from anterior pit
taget adrenal cortex and release glucocorticoids (cortisol and cortisone )
hypothalamus –> CRG –> ant pit –> ACTH –>adrenal cortex–> cortisol and then cortisol negative feedback to ant pit and hypothalamus
dopamine
from hypothalamus released prolactin from ant pit and targets breast tissue
posterior pit
DOES NOT RECIEVE TROPIC H THROUGH HYPopheasal pathway but hypothalamus send neurons down the pit stalk to post pit which releases oxytocin and ADH
oxytocin
uterine contractions during labor
lactation
ADH
antidietutic hormone or vasopressin- increases reabsorption of water in the kidneys
products of the ant pit
FLAT PEG
F- FSH
L-LH
A-ACTH
T-TSJ
P-Prolactin
E-Endorphins
G-GH
prolactin
mlk production in mammary glands
GH
growth hormone promotes growth in mescals and bone
ADH
secreted in response to blood volume
thyroid
controlled by thryoid stimulating homrone from ant pit
sets basal metabolic rate (release triiodothyronine- T3 and thyroxnine-T4) and promotes calcium homeotstais (calcitonin release
triiodothyronine- T3 and thyroxnine-T4
produced by follicular cells of the thyroid
make energy production more or less efficient alter utilization of glucose and fatty acids
deficiency in done == hypothyroidism
follicular cells produce C cells/parafollicular cells
which make calcitonin- decrease plasma Ca levels by increasing Ca excretion from the kidneys, decreasing ca from the gut or increasing storage of ca in the bone
parathyroid
produce parathyroid hormone (PTH)
antagonist H to Ca- increasing blood CA levels
negative feedback loop
activates vitamin D
glucagon fro alpha cells of the pancrase
increase glucose levels
insulin from the B cells from the pancrease
decrease blood gluc levels
ADH from the hypothalamus (released by post pit) increases blood volume and decreases blood osmoarlity
aldosterone from the adrenal cortex increases blood volume with no effect on blood osmoarlity. same with ANP from the heart
glucocorticoids
steroid H from adrenal glands that regulate glucose levels
cortsol and cortisone -and estrogens increase blood sugar in times of stress
under control by ACTH from the anterior pit.
mineralocorticoids
aldosterone- increases sodium resorption in the distal convoluted tube and collecting duct of nephron.
cortical sex hormones
androgens
adrenal medulla
makes epi and nor
sympathetic NS
glucagon
secreted during times of fasting when gluc is low- increases gluc production by triggering glycogensies
insukin
antagonist to glutton and secrete when blood glucose levels are high
cause hypoglycemia
diabtes
hyperglkycemia
type 1 diabetes
autoimmune destruction often B cells in the pancreases, low insulin production. type 2- receptor level resistance to the effects of insulin
somatostatin
inhibitor of both insulin dn glucagon
pineal gland
melatonin
monosacctdies three carbons, 4 C, 5C, 6C
triode, tetrose, pentose, hexose
glyceraldehyde
carbs with an aldehyde group as their most oxidized group, and with ketones
aldoses and ketoses
six C sugar with aldehyde
aldohexose
d-frustoce, d-glucose, d-galactose, d-mannose
know these structures
optical isomers
aka stereoisomers are compounds that have the same chemical formula - only difference by spatial arrangement in space
enatiomers
between stereoisomers that are nonidentical, non superimposable mirror images of one another
chiral C- 4 different things bonded to it
2 sugars that are in th same family (ketoses or aldoses and have the same number of C) that are not identical and not mirro rimages
diastereomers
epimers
subset of diastereomers that differentiations in cofirguation at exactly 1 chiral center
during hemiacetal and hemiketal formation, the carbonyl carbon becomes chiral and is termed the anomeric carbon
the OH sub on the carbon determines if the sugar molecule is alpha (axial and down tot eh CH2OH) or beta (up and equatorial)
exposing hemiacetal rings to water will cause them to
cycle between the open and closed form— mutarotation- alpha and beta
aldoses
considered reducing agents
hemiacetal ring
reducing sugar
Tollens reagent and Benedicts reagent
both used to detect the presence of reducing sugars
Tollen- reduced to produce a silvery error when aldelphydes are present
Benedicts- indicated by a reddish precipitate of Cu2O
tautomerization
refers tp tje rearrangement of bond in a compound, usually by moving a hydrogen and forming a double bond
enol
double bond and an alcohol group
starch
amylose (in plants) and amylopectin (glycosidic bonds- more soluble in solution bc branched so decreased intermoleulcaulr bonding between polymers and an increase with environment)
enzymes that cleave side activity will more likely cleave
glycogen because it contains more branching than amylopectin.
cell (plasma ) membrane
semipermeable phospholipid bilayer
chooses which particles to enter and leave- selective
fat-soluble cross easily, large and water soluble do not– by the bilayer and carriers
protect interior from exgernal
carbs associated with the membrane bound proteins create.
Glycoprotein coat
cell memebrane functions
regulate traffic in and out of the cell, communication and signaling. proteins embodied act as cell receptors during signal transuction
phosphopliids
move rapidly in the membrane through simple diffusion
lipid rafts
collection of similar lipids with or without associated proteins that serve as an attachment for other biomolcules- roles in signaling
flippasses
move lids between the membrane layers. this is hard with flipasse because the polar head group of the phospholipid must be forced through the non polar tail region in the interior of the bilayer.
membrane components- most plentiful to least
lipids (phosopholipid, cholesterol- fluidity to the layer) then proteins (channels and receptors in the transmembrane), carbs (glycoprotein coat and signaling molecules) and NA are absent
fatty acids
carbixlucic acids that contain a hydrocarbon chain and a terminal carboxyl group
triacylglycerides
stage lipids involved with human metabolic processes- three FA chains to a glycerol molecule
unsaturated fatty acid chains
healthier- one or more double bonds and exist at liquid form in room tmp- fluidity
kink
saturated fatty acids
soldis in room temp- less healthy
decrease fluidity of membrane
glycerophospholid
2 FA tails to a glycol and the last tail is a phosphate group
assemble into micelles (small vesicles) or ,liposomes (bilayer vesicles) due to hydrophobic interactions
secondd messengers, structure of membrane, phosphate group provides attachment point for soluble groups
spingolipids
not glycerol, have a hydrophilic regional’s dn 2 FA derived hyodrophobic tails (how they are simile to glycolipids)
cholesterol
regulates membrane fluidity and helps synthesized steroids
philic and phobiac regions
stability is derived from interactions with both of these regions that make up the bilayer
takes up space between phospholipids which prevents the formation of crystal structures and increasing flifuity at lower temperature
at high temperatures- cholesterol has the opposite effect by limiting movement between membrane and decreasing fluidiuty
waxes
cell memrbane of plants
extremely hydrophobic
long chain Fa and a long chain alcohol, contribeu to teh high melting point
stability and rigidity in the nonpolr tail region
protection/waterproof
fluid mosaic model
reset of 3 membrane proteins- transmamebrane, embodied and membrane-associated proteins
transmembrane proteins
pass completley through the bilayer
channels or receptors
embedded proteins
only with the interior (cytoplasm) or exterior (extracellular) surface of the cell
catalytic activity linked with nary enzymes
transmembrane and embedded are considered
integral proteins- associated with interior of the plasma membrane
membrane associated (peripheral) proteins
bound through electrostatic interactions with the lipid bilayer (at lipid rafters or transmembrane/embedded proteins)
ex. G protein next to the GPCR
signalling
carbs
attached to the protein molecules on the extracellualr surface
hydrophilic and with water can form coat around the cell
signalling mc- antigens on rBC are sphingolipids that differ only in carbs sequence
membrane receptors
transmembrane protons that activate or decactivate transporters in faciliatied diffusion or active transport
ex. ligand gad ion chandelles are membrane receptors that are opened in response of binding by a ligand
cell adhesion molecules
proteins that allow cell to recognize each other and contribue to proper cell differentiation adn development
in cell to cell junctions, were times form a cohesive layer via intercellular junctions- pathways of communiation
tigth junctions
prefent solutes from leaving into the space between cells via paracellular route
epithelial cells
limit permeable and create voltage difference based on ions on each side
bands
desmosomes
bind adjacent cells by anchoring to their cytoplasm
interactions between transmembrane proteins and intermediate filaments inside decent cels
epithetical cells
hemidesmosomes
similar function to desmosomes but attach to epithelial cells to underline structures, like the basement membrane.
gap junctions
intercellular transport of materials and do not prevent paracellular transport (between cells) of materials
bunces around the cells
passive transport
spontaneous processes that do not require energy
increase in entropy
active transport
nonspotenous and require energy
diffusion adn osmosis
increase in rate as temp increases
simple diffusion
substrates move down their concentration gradient directly across the memrbane
only particles permeable can do this diffusion
osmosis
specific kind of simple diffusion that contains water
low solute to high solute water moves
osmotic pressure
depends on concentrations of dissolved particles not on the chemical identity.
primary active transport
uses ATP as an energy source for the movement o molecules against their concentration gradient
transmembrane ATPase used
secondary active transport
electrochemicl gradeint to power transport
symbort- moves particles in same direction
antiport- moves particles across cell membrane in opposite directions
protons flow in power particle to move out - coupled
the membrane potential is maintained
for a differece in the number of positively and negatively charges on either side of the membrane through the sodium and potassium pumps
3 Na out and 2 K in
Nerst equation fo membrane potenail
E= RT/zF ln ion outiside/ion inside
outer mito membrane
highly permeable because many large pores that allow the passage of ions and small proteins
inner mito memrbane
restricted permeability . no cholesterol (which is diff than other membranes) no pH gradient between cytoplasm and intermemrbane space because the outer mito membrane has such high perm to biomolecules
cytoskelton
3D web composed of proteins that are anchored to the cell membrane by embedded protein complexes
strucureal proteins
collagen, Elastin, keratin, actin and tubulin
highly receptive secondary structures- motif
collagen
3 left-handed helices woven together to form a secondary right handed helix
make up extraceular matrix of connective tissue
strength and flexibility
elastin
extracellular matrix of connective tissue
stretch and recoil like a spring
keratins
intermediate proteins found in epithelial cells
mechanical integrity of the cell and also functions as regulatory proteins
hair nails
actin
protein that makes up microfilaments and the thin filaments in myofibrils. most abundant protein in eukaryote cells.
positive and negative side- polarity allows motor proteins to travel unidirectionality along an actin filaments
tubulin
protein that makes up microtubules - providing structure chromosome separation in mitosis and meiosis and intracellular transport with kinesis and dynein
polarity like actin
motor proteins
cilia and flagella, sperm
power the confromational change necessary for motor function with ATPase
myosin
primary motor protein thatinteracts with actin
thick filament in myofibril.
cellular transport
head and neck - sarcomere contraction
kinesina dn dynenis
motor proteins associated with microtibueles
2 heads, 1 attached to tubulin at all times
kinesin (aligning chromosome during metaphase and depolymerizing microtubules of anaphase)
dyneins- sliding movement of cili and flagella
kinesin brnings vesicle toward positive end of microtubules , as dyeing does move it toward negative end
both a role in vesicle transport
bindig ptoteins
hemoglobin, Ca binding proteins, DNA binding proteins (TF)
stabilize functions
trasport or sequester molecules by binding to them
Cell adhesion molecules
CAMS. proteins found on the surface of most cells and aid in the binding the cell to the extarcellular matrix
cadherins, interns, selectins
cadherins
glycoproteins that mediate calcium dependent cell adhesion
hold similar cell types together- like epithethial cells
integins
group of proteins the all have 2memrbane spacing chains called alpha dn beta
communicating and binding with extracellular matrix
cell signalling
promote cell division, apop
one cell to protein in exttracelliuar matrix
selectin
bind to carb molecules that project from other cell surfqces
weakest bonds formed by CMAS
on WBC and endothelial cells that line blood vessels
defense
one cell to carb
immunoglobulins
antibodies. rid thethe body of foreign invaders. proteins produced by B cells that function to neutralize targets in the body, such as toxins and bacteria, and then recruit other cells to help eliminate the threat.
Y shaped made up of 2 heavy chains and 2 light chains
each antibody has an antigen binding region
at the tips of the Y- with pacify polypeptide sequences that will bind one and only one specific antigenic sequence.
when antibodies bind to antigens they
neutralize the antigen, making the pathogen or toxin unable to exert its effect on the body
marking the pathogen for destruction by other WBC - opsonization
clumping together (aggregating) the antigen and antibody into large insoluble protein complexes that can be phagocytize and digested by macrophages.
cytoskeleton vs motor proteins
cyto proteins tend t be fibrous with repeating domains, while motor proteins tend to have ATPase activity and binding heads. both function in cell motility.
motor proteins are enzymes
they are proteins with catalytic activity through ATPase
if the binding protein present is in rlly high quantities relative to the subtrate
binding can occur despite low affinity
biosignalling
cells reciceve and act on signals. proteins can act like extracelularlihands, trnapodrters, recetepro proteins, second messengers.
function in soubrette binding or enzymatic activity
ion channels
create specific pathways for charged molecules
ligand gated, undated Chanels and voltage gated channels
all do facilitated diffusion
facilitated difusion
a type of passive transport- diffusion of molecules down their concentration graident through a pore in the membrane created by a transmembrane proteins. used for molecules impeccable to the membrane (polar, charged, large)- avoid phobic tails of the bilayer
ungated channels
have no gates and are therefore unregulated
ungated potassium channels- flow freely unless in equilibrium
voltage gated channels
gate is regulated by the membrane potential change near the channel
VG NA channels in neurons- closed during resting but membrane depolarization causes a protein conformation change that allows them to quickly open and close as voltage increases
Ligand gated ion channels
the binding of a specific substance or ligand to the channel causes it to open or close. NT at post syn membranes- for ex. GABA binds to Cl- channel dn opens it
enzyme linked receptors
catalytic activity in response to ligand binding
protein domains: membrane spanning domain, a ligand-binding domain, catalytic domain
auto activity
membrane spanning domain
actors the receptor in cell memrbane
ligand binding domatin
stimulated by liana and induces conformational change that activates the catalytic domain
second messenger cascade
G protein coupled receptors
large family of integral membrane protein involved in signal transduction
heterotrimeric G protein
GDP- GTP
2 protein complex
Gs-
stimulates adenyl cyclase, which increases levels of cAMP in teh cell
Gi
inhibits AC- decreases cAMP in teh cell
Gq
activates phospholipase C
mind your P and Q
cleaved to form PIP2 which is cleaved to form DAG and IP3
G protein subunits
inactive- alpha binds to GDP and with beta and gamma
activated- GDP goes to GTP and alpha dissoiaicate sand activates AC
electrophoresis
moves compounds according to net charge and size
migration velocity
electric field
negative moves to positive, etc
polyacrylamide gel
medium for protein electrophoresis
smaller particles pass through easier
so move through farthest if small highly charged and in a huge electric field
polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis PAGE
analyzing proteins in their native state
limited by the varying mass to charge and mass to size ratios of cell proteins because multiple proteins may experience the same level of migration
most useful in comparing size and charge of proteins known to be similar in size from other analytic methods like SDS Page or chromatography
SDS PAGE
seperates proteins solely on molecular mass alone
SDS- interrupts all non covalent interactions
neutralize charge
Isoelectric focusing
isoelectric point- the pH at which the protein or amino acid is electrically neutral, equal number of positive and negative charges
zwitteroin - amino group protonated and carboxyl group is deproonated and side chainneutral
chromatography
fractionated through a porous mixture
more similarr the compound is to its surroudnigns, the more it will stick to and slowly move (based on polarity, charge)
column chromatography
size and polarity have a role in how quickly the compound moves through the beads or silica.
less polar, faster it moves
can be used to collect NA and other macromolecules
in exchange chromatography
beads in the column are coated with charged substances so they attract or bind compounds that have opposite charge
size exclusion chromatprghy
beads contain tiny pores of varying sizes- allow small compunds to enter the beads and slow them down. larger compounds will move around them adn travel through the column faster
affinity chromatograpy
crating a column with high affinity for a certain protein
coat beads with certain receptor or antibody and protein can be retained
X ray crystallography
NMR. determine proein structure
measures electron density
Edman degreadation
uses cleavage enzymes to sequence proteins of up to 50-70 amino acids
creates smaller fragments that can be analyzed by electrophoresis
DNA
deoxyribose nucleic acid made of:
nucleosides
nucleotides
nucleosides-
5 C sugar (pentose) bonded to a nitrogenous base and formed by covalently linking the base to C-1 of the sugar
nucleotides
one of more phosphate groups are attached to C-5' of a nucleoside. adenosine di phosphate - ADP adenosine tri phosphate - ATP high E building blocks of DNA
nucleic acids are classified based on their pentose they cotnain
if sugar is ribose, then RNA
if pentose is deoxyribose then DNA
example of base, nucleoside , nucleotide
Adenine- adenosine- AMP, ADP, ATP
Guanine- Guanosine- GMP, GDP, GTP
backbone of DNA
alternating sugar and phosphate groups
also read 5-3
overall negative charge
link nucleosides to 3-5 phosphodiesterase bond
purines and pyrdimes are
aromatic- stable ring with cyclic, planar, conjugated (alternating single and multiple bonds)
Watson and Crick model
A pairs with T (in DNA) or U (RNA) using 2 H bonds
C pairs with G with 3 H bonds (stronger)
antiparqaell eDNA
sugar phosphate backboned with nitrogenous bases on the inside
Chargaffs rule
the amount of A = T and then amount of C = G because of pairing ONLY FOR DNA
3 structural difference between RNA and DNA
DNA double stranded, RNA single
DNA thymine, RNA Uracil
RNA ribose, DNA deoxyribose
aromaticity of nucleic acids
stable! and unreactive
storing genetic infromationa dn avoiding sponteous munitions
DNA wrapped in histones
chromatin
histones are a type of nucleoproteins- associated with DNA
histone proteins
H1, H2A, H2B, H3 and H4. H1 is not in histone core
heterochromatin
dense packing, dark , silent transcriptional activity
euchchromatin
not dense, light under microscope, activev
repeat TTAGGG at the end of DNA
to form a telomere and avoid losing sequences and information when DNA replication
telomere replaced by telomerase- highly expressed in dividing cells
also high CG content and creates strong strong atttractions at the end of the chromosomes to prevent unraveling - same with centromeres
Helicase
eukaryote and prok
unwinds DNA double helix
single stranded DNA-binding protein
eukaryote and prok
prevents reannealing od NA double helix during replicaiton
primase
eukaryote and prok
places about 10 nucleotide RNA primer to begin DNA replicaiton
DNA polymerase 3
Prok
adds nucleotides to growing daughter strands 5-3
DNA polymerase alpha
eukaryote
adds nucloetids to growing daughter strands 5-3
DNA polymerase 1
prok
fill in gaps left behind after RNA primer excision
RNase H
eukaryote
excises RNA primer and fill in gaps
DNA ligase
eukaryote and prok
joins DNA strands between ozaraki fragments
DNA topoisomerases
euk and prok
reduce torsional strain from positive supercoils by introducing nicks in DNA strand
supercoils- wrapping of DNA on itself as its helical structure is pushed ever further towards the teloemerases
lagging strand is more prone to mutations
becuase cnstantly starts and stops the process of DNA replication
more RNA primers that must be removed and filled with DNA
telomeres
at the end of eukaryote chromosome and contain repetitive sequences of noncoding DNA. These protect the chromosome from losing important genes from the incomplete replication of the 5’ end
cancer
able to divide without stimulation from toher cells and no longer subject to controls on cell life.
metasis
a migration to distant tissues by the blood stream or lympathetic syste
oncogenes
code for cell cycle related proteins- proton-oncogene
when mutated , protooncogene- becomes an oncogene promoting rapid cell cycling
stepping o the gas pedal
antioncogenes
encode proteins that inhibit the cell cycle or participate in DNA repair processes and stop tumor progression
tumor suppressing genes code for
repair or cell cycle inhibitign proteins
the mutated, cell cycle is allowed to proceed unchecked
cutting the breaks to your car
proofreading
parent strand is rlly methylated
daughter strand is barely methylated
DNA polymerase can distinguish between the 2 strands
repair mechanisms for proofreading
DNA polymerase - S
Mismatch repair- G2- MSH2, MLH1
nucleotide excision repair- G1, G2- excision in endonuclease- cut and patch (corrects legions large enough to distort the double helix)
base excision repair- G1, G2- glucosylase, AP endonuclease enzyme- remove damage (corrects lesion pairs that are small enough not to distort double helix)
genomic libraries
all of the DNA in an organism’s genome, including noncoding regions
studyign DNA introns, centromeres and telomeres useful
cDNA libaeies
only include expressed genes from a given tissue- can be used to express recombinent proteins or to perform gene therapy
PCR
increases the number of copies of a given DNA sequence and can be used for a sample containing very few copies of the DNA sequence.
southern blotting
useful when the searchign for a particular DNA sequence because it separates DNA fragments by length and then probes for a sequence of interest
Dioyribonucleotides
lack the 3–OH group that is required for DNA strand elongation. thus, once dideoxyribonucleotide is added to a growing DNA molecule
no more molecules can be added because no OH group to form a bond with
transgenic mice
gene introduced through their germ line or embryonic stem cells to look at the effect of the gene
study dominant allies
knockout mice- gene has been removed
emulsificaion
mixing of 2 normally immesicble things (fats and water)
digestion of fats
fats consists of triglyecdies, cholesterol, cholesterol esters. phospholipids, fatty acids
transported to Small intestine essentially intact because stomach does not break them down. Upon entry, emsulication occurs which increases surface area of the lipid and permits greater enzyme interaction and processing
aided by bile secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. pancreatic lipase, foliage and cholesterol esterase into SI by the pancreas and hydrolyze the lipid components
absorption then occurs in SI by intestinal cells- create micelles (clusters of amphipathic lipids that are soluble in aqueous environment of the intestinal lumen-water solubale head and lipid soluable interior)
all lipids enter ciruculation
directly
a fall in insulin levels activate
hormone sensitize lipase (HSL)- in adipose tissue- that hydrolyzes triacylglycerdies , yielding fatty acid and glyercerol. Epi and cortisol can also activate HSL
glycerol from fat may be transported to the liver for glycolysis or glucneogenesis
LPL (lipoprotein lipase)
enzyme that can release fatty acids from trigyercerols in lipoproteins
an increase insulin levels
increase lipidd storage and decrease lipid mobilization from adipocytes leading to weight gain with people who take insuli
the ratio of free fatty acid to glycerol is
3:1triglycerol molecule is made up of a glycerol and 3 FA
triglycerides and cholesterol transported through the blood as
lipoproteins- aggregate of apolioprotieins and lipids
free FA in teh body transported by:
bonding to albumin and other carrier proteins. a much smaller amount will remain unbonded
chylomicrons
highly soluable in both lymphatic fluid and blood and function in the transport of dietary trigylcerides, cholesterol adn cholesterol esters to other tissues.
in intestinal lining
VLDL
very low density lipoproteins
produced and assembled in the liver
same function as chylomicrons- transport of triglycerides to other tissues
also contains FA synthesized from excess glucose or remnants of chylomicron
IDL
intermediate density lipoproteins
once triglyceride is removed from VLDL, particle named this. either absorbed by liver by apoloiopoproteins on its exterior or bloodstream
transition particle
greatest percentage of proteins to least perceptages of proteins for lipoproteins
HDL>LDL>IDL>VLDL>chylomicrons
liporpteosin syntheize by the liver and intestine
ys
LDL
low density lipoprcholesterol!!! deliver chol to issues for biosynthesis and steroid synthesis and plays a role in cell memrbanes
HDL
high density liporptoeins proteins
synthesized int eh liver and intesines and released as dense protein particle in blood\clean up excess chol from blood vessels excretion
a good chol
apolioproproteins
form the protein component of lipoproteins
receptor moleucles involved with signaling
chol is either synthesized from LDL and HDL or by de novo
de novo- in iver ad driven by acetyl coA and AT
synthesis of mevalonic acid in SER during chol biosynethsis is the
rate limiting step. Cataluyzed by HMG
transport of chol
LCAT and CETP
LCAT
found in teh bloodtserm and activated by HDL
adds a Fa to chol- catalyzes the esterification of chol to form cholesterol esters.
CETP
promotes the transfer of cholesterol esters from HDL to IDL forming LDL
saturated FA
no double bonds
Unsaturated FA
double bonds
steps of attachment of acetyl COa to a FA
- attach Fa to acyl carrier protein
- bond formation between molecules
- reduction of carbonyl group
- dehyrdation
- reduction of double bond
nontemplate synthesis
lipids and carbs because they do not rely on DNA coding like proteins and NA synthesis
FA biosynthesis
in liver
tranported to adipose tissue for storage
stimulated by insulin
palmitic acid is the primary end product of FA synthesis
fatty acids are synthesized in the
cytoplasm and modififed by enzymes in the SER
b oxidation in unsaturated FA has a
additional isomerase adn reductase which provide the stereochemistry for further oxidation
FA degradtiona
results in large amounts of acetyl CO which cannot enter the gluconeogenic pathway to produce glucose
only odd number FA can act as a source of C for gluconeogenesis, eveb- malonyl COA
energy is packed into keto bodies for consumption by brain adn muscle
ketogenesi
favored by prolonged fast and occurs in the liver
stimulated by increasing concentrations of acetyl COA/
proteins are more valueable in the cell than
lipids adn therefore not broken doen during lipid synthesis
protein digestion occurs in
small intetine
fertiliztion
secondary oocyte is ovulated from the follicle on Day 14 of menstruel cycle- ravels up Fallopian tube where it can be fertilized 24 hours after ovulation.
occurs in the ampulla of the Fallopian tube
sperm that comes into contact with oocyte forms a acrosomal apparatus, which extends to penetrate teh cell membrane.
then release cortical reaction, a release of Ca ions which depolarize the membrane of the ovum and can prevent fertilization of ovum by multi sperm cells and can increase the metabolic rate of the newly formed zygote. The now depolarized and impermeable membrane is called fertilization membrane
dizygotic twins
dizygotic (fraternal) twins- form from fertilization of two different eggs being release during one ovulatory cycle by two different sperm. Each implant into wall and develop its own placenta, chorion and amnion. No moree genetically similar than siblings
monozygotic twin
identical. when as single zygote splits into 2
genetic material is identical
if division incomplete- conjoined twins- physically attached
Cleavage
after fertilization in the Fallopian tube, zygote myst travel to uterus for implantation. On teh way, undergoes rapid mitotic cell division (cleavage)
1st cleave- creates unicellulaeity
increase area for gas and nutrient exchange relative to volume with these many divisions.
two types of cleavage
intermediate and determinate
indeterminate
results in cells that can still develop not complete organisms. Monozygotiv twins have identical genomes because they both originate rom indeterminate cleavage of the same embryo.
determinate cleave
results in cells with fates that are already determined
committing to differntiating into a certain type of cell.
order of devlopment
zygote– emrbyo–morula (slid mass of cells)– blastula (a hollow ball of cells with a fluid filled inner cavity– cells give rice to the plata and also organisms)–gatrula
implanation occurs in teh
blastula - moves through the Fallopian tube to the uterus and burrows into the endometrium
trophoblastic cells— chorine (extra embryo membrane that develops into placenta)
embryo connected to placenta via umbilical cord (2 Arteries- waste and deoxuegnationed O2- 1 vein- oxygen and nutient)
gastrulation
the formation fo 3 distinct cell layers
germ layer:
ectoderm- epidermis hair nails, epithelia of nose, hair mouth, lens of eye
mesoderm- musckosletoal , circulatory. gonads, connective tissue, adrenal corex
endoderm- epithelial lining of digestive and respirtory tracts and pancreas, thyroid, bladder
inductioon
nearby cells influence at the differeation of adjacent cells. ensures proper spatial location and origination of cells that share a function or have complementary functions
neural crest cells
become the PNS - including the sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla and Schwann cells) as well as specific cell type sin other tissues (calcitonin producing cells in thyroid)
determination
committment of a cell to a particular lineage
differetiation
refers tot eh actual change that occurs in order for the cell to assyme the structure and function of the determined cell type.
totipotency
any cell type in the deveoping embryo (primary germ layers) to in extraembryonic tissues (anion, chorion, placenta)
pluripotency
any cell type in the developing emyro- primary germ layer
mulitpotency
any cell type with a particular lineage (hematopoietic stem cells)
autocrine
the signal acts on teh same cell that secretd it
paracrine
the signal acts on a local cell
juxtacrine
a cell triggers adjacent cells through direct receptor stimulation
endorcirn
signal travels via the bloodstream to act on cells at distant sites
apoptosis
programmed cell death and resulte din contained blebs of the dead cell that can be picked up adn digested by other cells.
necrosis
cell death de to injure and reuslts in spiling cytoplasmic contents
the umbilical cord
carris deoxygenated blood.
the umbilicl vein
carries oxygenated blood
foramen ovale shunt
right atrium to L atrium instead of R ventricle
higher pressure so pump blood? revereses when give birth
bypass lungs
doctor arterioles shunts
shunts leftover blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta. - bypass lungs
ductus venosus
shunts blood returning from the placenta via the umbilical cord directly into the inferior vena cava- bypass liver
first trimester
organogenesis occurs
develop eyes, heart, gonads, limbs, liver, brain
secondary trimester
lots of growth- movement begins
face is human and fingers/toes elongate
third trimester
rapid growth and brain development contnue and antibodeis to the fetus
first phase of birth
cervix things out and amniotic sac ruptures
second phase of birth
uterine contractions, coordinated by prostaglandins and oxytocin, result in birth of the fetus
third phase of birth
placenta nad umbilical cord are birthed
membrane lipids are amiphatic
hydrophilic (polar head) and hydrophobic regions (fatty acid tails)
form micelles when in aqueous solutions.
fatty acid tails
form the bulk of the phospholipid bilayer and play a structural role.
memrbane lipids have constant exposure to the exterior environment (either inside or outside the cell) and degree of unsaturation can play a functional role.
phospholipids
a phisphate and aclcohol polar head group and a hydrophobic tail by phosphodiester bonds.
varying backbones classify them furhter- glycerol and sphingosine
saturated
only single bonds
no pi bonds
butter
stable
unsaturated
one or more doule bonds
kinks
difficult to stay adn solidify and thereffore are liquid at room temo
olive oil
glycerophospholipids
phospholipids that contain a glycerol back bonded by ester linkages to 2 FA tails and a phosphodiester linkage to a polar head group
cell recognition, signaling, binding
sphinglipids
blood typin on RBC antigen (the spingholipid)
have a spinghospine backboned and long chain FA non polar tails and polar head groups
ceramide- H as a head group
if has a phosphodiester bond- a phospholipid
nonphospholipid sphingolipids include glycolipids- with a glycosidic linkage to sugar
sphingomyeline
phospholipid with phosphatideylethanolamine adn phosphatidylcholine as functional groups
glycosphingolipid
glycolipid with sugars as functional groups
gangioside
glycolipid
oligiosaccaradies and NANA as functional groups
have a polar head group and functional groups
waxes
esters of long chain FA with long chin alc
terpenes
class of lipids built from isoprene moieties and share a common structural pattern with carbons grouped in multiple of five
diterpene- 20 C molecules.
one terpene is made from 2 isoprene units, each of which have 5 C
steroids
defined by its structure- includes 3 cyclohexane ring and a cyclopentane ring oxidation state of the rings = function a steroid H is a molecule within this class but also functions as a hormone, meaning that it travels in teh bloodstream, is active at low concentrations, has high affinity for receptors adn affects gene expression adn metabolism
prostaglandins
regulate the synthesis of cAMP which is involved in many pathways includign ones that drive pain adn inflammation
vitamins
A- carotene- retinal (vision), as retionic acid (epithelial development), growth and mine
unsaturated hydrocarbon
D- cholecalicerfol -as calcitriol (calcium and phosphate regulation) - UV with skin. in kidney and liver adn promote bone production by uptake of calcium
decrease= rickets
E- tocopherols- antioxidants, using aromatic rings
lipids, hydrophobic
destroy free radicals
helps with cancer and aging
K- phylloquinione and menaquinone- posttranslational modifcations of prothrombin, addition of calcium bindign sites on many proteins
clotting in blood
human body stores E as
glycogen and triacylgerols. Triacylglycerols are preferred because their carbons are more reduced, resulting in larger amount of E yield per unit weight. They are also hydrophobic so no extra weight from water
triacylglycerols
triacylglycerides AKA. composed of glycerol backbone sterfried to 3 FA
used to E storage
esters bonds are broken to form a glycol molecule and salts of FA
non polar and phobic
sponification
ester hydrolysis of triacylglycerols using a strong base
FA leave and NA and glycerol- soap
soaps dissolve in water bc
their amphiphatic free FA salts form micelles with hydrophobic FA tails toward the center and carboxylate groups facing outward toward the water. Fat soluble particles can then dissolve inside micelles the soap water solution and wash away.
lungs are located in the
thoracic cavity: the structure used to perform breathing
gas exchange in the lungs
air enters the respiratory tract through the external nares of nose, pass through nasal cavity adn filtered by mucous membranes and nasal hairs. Then passes through pharynx (behind nasal- food to esophagus and air to lungs) and larynx (below the pharynx and solely air). Opening of the larynx (glottis) has the epiglottis during swallowing to block food from going to the respiratory tract. From larygyn, our passes into the trachea and then one of the 2 bronchi.
bronchi adn trachea contain
cilitated epithelial cells to catch material that made it past mucous memranes
bronchi divide into smaller structures
bronchioles—> alveoli (small balloon like structures)
alvelio
coated with a surfactant - lowers Surface tension and prevents alveoli from collpasing on itself. capillaries surroudn alveoli to cary O2 and CO2
pleurea
surround each lung and forms a closed sac against which the lungs expand
lungs require skeletal muscle to
generate the negative pressure for expansion– diaphragm (thin, muscular structure that divides the chest cavity fro the abdominal cavity)
inhalation
use diaphragm and external intercostal muscles to expand the thoracic cavity.AS the diaphragm flattens and the chest wall expands, the intrathoraic volume increases (and a decrease in pressure)
exhalation
relax extneral inercostal muscle and diaphragm, chest cavity decreases in volume, pressure increases by Boyles Law and air is pushed out
active exhalation uses abdominal msucles and internal intercostal muscles
vital capacity
sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and tidal volume
VC = IRV + ERV + TV
when CO2 levels are too low
brain can decrease teh respiratory rate in order to raise CO2 levels
total lung capacity (TLC)
max volume of air in teh lungs when one completely inhales
residual volume (RV)
volume of air remainig in the lungs when one exhales completely
TV tidal volume
volume of the air inhaled or exhaled on. normal breath
expiratory reserve volume ERv
volume of additional air that can be forcible exhaled after normal exhalaion
inspiratory reserve volume
IRV. volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation
ventiltion
regulated by neurons in the medulla (called the ventiliation center) - regular contractions of respiratory muscles . contain chemoreceptors that are sensitize to CO2 concentration
As CO@ increase (hypercarbia)
resp rate increases so more CO2 is exhaled and leave blood
capillaries around alvelpoi
bring deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary Arties, which originate from teh R ventricle of the heart. Thin walls so diffusion of CO2 from the blood into the lungs and O2 into teh blood is easy. O@ blood returns to left atrium of the heart via pulmonary veins
thermoregulation
regulation of body temp
vasodilatin adn vaso contrición of blood vessels
expand- more blood pass through- thermal energy dissipated (lost)
immuen defenses in lungs
vibrissae in th nares/nasal cavity (small hairs that trap infectious particles), lysozyme in the mucous membranes Enzyme in nasal and tears and salivia- attack walls of pathogens), muscociliary escalator (propel mucus up thehe respiratory tract to the oral cavity), macrophages in the lungs (engulf and signal other immune responses there is an invader) and muscele IgA anibodies and mast cells (antibodies on their surfaces- when aothogen binds, release inflammatory chemicals that promote immune)
respirtory play a role in bicarbonate buffer system
CO2 + H20 –> H2CO3 –> H+ + HCO3-
body attempts to maintain a pH between 7.35 and 7.45
when pH is lower, H+ concentration is higher (academia) and increase repository rate via acid sensing chemorecetpros to teh brain
greater CO2
if blood is too basic
alkalemia- boddy will seek to increase acidity- respirtory rate is slowed, CO2 retained, shifting buffer equation to the R and producing more H+ and bicarb ions and Lowe pH
two types of digestion- intracellular
intracellular (metabolism- involves the oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for Energy extracted from our foods)
extracellular digestion
the process by which nutrients are obtained from food occurs within the lumen of the alimentary canal (mouth to anus- sectioned off by sphincters or circular smooth muscle around teh canal that allows compartilization)
digestion
involves the breakdown of food into its continuent organic molecules - starches and other carbs into monosaccharides, lipids (fats) into FA and glycerol, proteins into AA. subdivided into mechanical and chemical processes
mechanical digestion
physical breakdown of large food particles into small food particles, not involved with breaking chemical bonds
chemical digestion
enzymatic cleave of chemical bonds such as peptide bonds of proteins
absorption
invovlesx the transport products of digestion from teh digestive tract into teh circulatory system for distribution
digestive tract
begins with oral cavit (mouth) followed by the pharynx (food and air entering ), then esophagus which transports to stomach. stomach to small intestine and then large adn then waste enters rectum where feces are stored until released.
salicary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder produce enzymes and lubrication needed to aid in this processq
enteric nervous system
govern GI system neurons
trigger peristalsis, or rhythm conractios of the gut tube, to move materials through the system. regulated by autonomic NS.
parasympathetic for digestion
stimulation of digestive activities, increasing secretions from exocrine glands and promotoing perstalisis
sympathetic for digestion
inhibiotion of these activities - slows digestion
hromones invlolved with feeding
ADH (antidieturitc/vasopressin) and aldosterone- sensatin of thirst is triggered
glucagon- secreted by pancreas and gherkin- secreted by stomach- stimulate hunger feelings
leptin and cholecystokinin- feelings of full
mastication
- helps increase SA of food for enzyme digestion
oral cavity
both mechanical (chewing) and chemical digestion
Saliva
chemical digestion by moistening and lubrciating food
stimulate parasympthatic NS
salivary amylase (hydrolyzing starch into smaller sugars), and lipase (catalyzes the hydrolysis of lipids)
pharynx
mouth to posterior nasal cavity to the esophagus
divided into 3 parts
food cannot enter larynx by epiglottis
esophagus
connects pharynx to the stomach
top is under voluntary control - sketlal muscle
bttom- involuntary control- smooth muscle
top is under voluntary control muscles, bottom is autonomic
the stomach can be divided into 4 divison
funds and body - gastric glands
antrum and pylorus- pyloric glands
upper L quadrant of abd. Uses HCL and enzymes to digest food, harsh environment
lining of stomach- rugae
the muscoa of the stomach contains gastric glands and pyloric glands
gastric glands- responds to signals from the vagus nerve of the parasympathetic system , whic is activated by sight, taste adn smell of food
gastric glands cell types
mucous cells, chief cells and parietal cells
mucous cells
produce the bicarbonate rich muscus that protects the muscular wall/lining (from the ph=2) and increases acidic and proteolytic environment of teh stomach
cheif cell
secrete pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin, a proteolytic enzyme).
parietal cells
Secretes H+ from secreting HCL and cleave pepsinogen to pepsin. Pepsin digests proteins by cleaving peptide bonds near aromatic amino acids, resultign in short peptide fragments. Activated by teh acidic environment (low ph)
HCL decreases pH, kills microbes , dentures poteins, carries out some chemical digestion
intrinsic factors: absorption of vitamin B12
plyrouc cells contain the G cells
secretes gastrin, a peptide H, which increases HCL production adn gastric motility (mixing in stomach)by stimulating parietal cells
results in chyme- acidic semi fluid mixture
ADH and adlosteron
trigger sensation of thrist
glucagon an ghrelin
stimulate feelings of hunger.
leptin and cholecystokinin
simulte fullness
reversal of peristatlysis
vommitting/emesis
swallowing
initated by the muscles in the oropharynx, which constitute the upper esophageal sphincter.
digestion of carbs and fats
initate in the mouth by enzymes but minimal
gastric juice
combination of secretion from chief cells and parental cells
acidic environment of stomach
kills most harmful bacteria and helps denature proteins and break down bonds that hold food together
small intestine has
dueodenum, jejunum and ilium
duodunum
responsible for majority of chemical digestion and a lil bit in absorption (the other 2 parts mostly)
food leaves stomach through
pyloric sphincter and enters duodenum. Chyme in duodenum causes the release of Bursh border enzymes like disarrachridases (break down carbs)(maltase, lactase) and peptidases (break down proteins). Break down so that are absorbable monomers.
dueodum secretes
enteropeptidase - involved in teh activation of other digestive enzymes from teh accessory organs of digestion
also secretes secretin and cholecystokinin into the bloodstream
disarracidases
digest diasaccrahides maltase- maltose isomaltase- isomaltose lactase- lactose sucrase- sucrose if not break down- intestines hydrolyze disaccharide and produce methane gas and can cuse diarrhea by pulling water into teh stool explains lactose intolerant
peptidases
break down proteins
aminopepidase- pepidase secreted by the glands in the duodenum that removes the N terminal amino acid from a protein
dipeptides- cleave peptide bond of dipeptides to release free AA
broken down into di and tri peptides and absorbed through intestine wall (not monomers)
enteropeptidase
an enzyme critic for the activation of trypsinogen, a pancreatic protease, to trypsin. Trypsin then intiates a an activation cascade
secretin
hormone that increases pancreatic secretions esp bicarbonate , reduces HCL secretions and decreases motility
cholecystokinin
hormone that recruits secretions from gallbladder adn pancreases,promotes satiety.
secreted in response to chyme in duodenum
stimulates release of both bile and pancreatic juices
bile salts
derived from cholesterol faciliate chemical digestion in lipids emusilfy fats an chol into micelles so they are accessible to pancreatic lipase mechanical digestion of fats increase SA
pancreatic juices
bicarb rick alkaline solution with enzymes
bicarb helps neutralize acidic chyme and provide a good working environment for digestive enzymes
digest carbs fats and proteins
pancreatic lipase
chemical digestion (pancreatic lipase) by breaking ester bonds of fats
pancreas
endocrine and exocrine functions
endocrine- release of insulin, glucagon, somatostatin- maintenance of blood sugar levels
exocrine- made up of acing cells that produce pancreatic juices - bicarb rich alkaline secretions containing many digestive enzmes that work on all 3 classes of biomolecules
pancratic amylase
breaks down large polysaccharides into small disaccrhaires and is therfore esponsbiel for carb digestion
pancreatic peptidases
trypsinogen, chemotrypsinogen and carboxypeptidases A and B are respomsble for protein digetion
enteropeptidase- trypsinogen to trypsin which activation other zymogens (above) and also procarboxypeptidase
pancreatic lipase
break down fats to FA and glycerol
bile
composed of bile salts (amphipathic molecules derived from chol that emulsify fats), pigments (bilirubin from the breakdown of hemoglobin secreted into bile for excertion- if not- result in jaundice) and chol
bile ducts connect liver with
gallbladder adn SI
bile is produced in teh liver and travels down bile ducts to be stored int eh gallbladder
liver
processes nutrients (through glycogenesis and glyconeolysis) , produces urea, detoxifies chemicals, activates or inactivates meds, produces bile, synthesis albumin (pressure in vessels and carries drugs)and clotting facotrs
gallbldder
stores adn concentrates bile
release of CCK releases bile
chol and bilirubin sone formation= inflammation of gall bladder
accessory organs of digestion originate from
the primary germ layer embryonic endoderm
jejunum an ilium
involed in absorption
vili
increase SA for absotopion on SI
epithelial lining small finger like projections
capillary bed for absotopion of water soluable nutients and a lacteal - a lympathic channel that takes up fats for transports into teh sympathetic system
simple sugars- glucose, fructose , amino acids
absorbed through secondary actie transport and faciliated diffusionn into the epithelial cells lining the SI
then move across lining to intenesitional capillarities - blood carries these molecuels away
creates a concentration gradient such that blood has lower concentration of sugars and AA then inside epithelial cells so they can diffuse across to capilarries
go to liver via heptic portal circulation
fats
follow the same process as carbs and aa by diffucing directly into the capillaries
no transportes bc nonpolar
larger fats break apart and then reform after going across
packaged into chylomicrons and enter lumpathic cirucltion (not blood) through lacteals - enter venous circulation
vitamins
absorved in SI fat soluable (A, D, E K) or water soluable (B and C)
large intestine
cecum (accepts fluids from SI- has to do with appendix), colon (absorb water and salt from undigested material from SI), rectum (storage site for feces)
absorb water is main job, bu SI actually absorb more water- watery dirrhea more liely to be SI problem than large
excretory system
serves many functions, including the regulation of blood pressure, blood osmolarity, acid-base balance adn removal of nitrous waste. kidney, ureters, bladder adn urthtra
kidney
nephron- empathy to renal pelvis and form the ureter adn urine travels through the ureter to the bladder
kidney structure
cortex - outmost layer- and medulla
portal system- 2 cap beds in series through which blood must travel before returning to the heart
portal system in kidney
renal artery branches out , passes through medulla and enters cortex as aafferent arterioles. capillaries derievd from these arterioles are known as glomeruli. after blood passes through glomeruli, efferent arterioles form a second cap bed around the loop of henle (known as vasa recta)— renal vein
Bowmans capulsa
around glomerus
proximal convoluted tubule– descending and ascending limbs of loop of henle– distal convoluted tubule adn collecting duct– renal pelvis - ureter – bladder- urethra
parasympathetic causes
contraction of detrusor muscle (bladder lining)
filtration
the movement of solutes from the blood into filtrate at bowmans capsule.
nephron function
secreation
is the movement of solutes from the blood into filstrate anywhere besides bowmans campulse
nephron secrete salts acid bases and urea
reabsorption
the movement of solutes from filtrate into teh blood
glucose, AA, vitamins
bowmans capulse
site of filtration, through which water, ions and AA and vitamin and glucose all pass (everythign besides cell and proteins)
proximal convoluted tubule
controls solute identity , reabsorbing vitamins, AA and glucose, while secreting potassium adn hydrogen ions, ammonia and urea
the desendign limb of loop of henle
water reabsorption and concentration graident used (medullary)
ascending limb of loop of hnele
salt reabsorption and dilution of urine in the diluting segment
distal convoluted tubile
solute indentity in reabsorbign salts while secreting potassium and hydrogen ions, ammonia an durea
collecting ducts
urien concentrations - variable permeability allows water to be reabsorbs based on needs of the body
aldosterone
sterioid hormone that is secrete by the adrenal cortex in response to decreased blood pressure
skin layers (deep to superifical
hypodermis (subcutaneous), dermis, epidermis
keratinocytes
primary cells of the epidermis- produce keratin- resistant to damage and provide protection against injury, water and pathogen
layers of epidermis (superifical to deep)
stratum: coreneum (flat keratinocytes- forming a barrier that prevents invasion of athogens and prevents loss of fluid), lucidum (thick hairless skin like palm, granulosum (the kertaincyte die and lose their nuclei), spinous (site of langerhand cells - antigens to T cells to activate immune), basale ( stem cells and keratinocytes )
dermis layers
papillary layer - loose connectieve tissue. below this is the reticular layer.
sweat glands, blood vessel and hair follicles originate in dermis and sensory receptors
body cool itself through
vasodilation (blood to skin to help with evaporation) adn sweating (autonomic - evaporation of water from teh skin which absorbs body heat
body warms itself through
vasoconstriction, ploerection (hairs stand up- trap heat) adn shivering
`information travels from the CNS to periphery
cerebral cortex- spinal cord- efferent neurons- interneneurons- motor neurons- muscle tissues
take information to the CNS
afferent nerves
relay instructions from the CNS
efferent neurons
sensory and motor nerves either connect to the spinal cord
spinal erves
senosry and motor nerves connect directly into the skull
cranial nerves
osmoreceptors
respond to the osmolarity of blood
LDOPA
increases dopamine concentration as it is the precursor to dopamine , nor and epi
GABA
hyperpolarizes cells to reduce action potential firing
glycine
inhibitory NT found in the spinal cord adn brainstem
parkinsons
loss of dopamine in sub nigra
endorphins
suppress pain and produce euphoria
serotonin
effects intestinal movement in teh GI
muscle activation requires releases of
CA from sacroplastic reiculum
depolirzation
characterized by a rapid influx o Na+ into the neuron
action porential
-70 mV –> -55 mV if excitatory stimulus is strong enough and then depolarize and Na rush into cell til +40 mV, in which the Na channels close adn K+ channels open (rush in to out) and cause repolarization and back past -70 mV (replication) called hte refractory period
action potentials start at the
axon hillock and move down teh axon towards the synapse
spinal cord transection
condition in which the nerves that run inside the vertebral column are damaged. This interrupts the conduction of efferent signals that cause the motor evoked potentials
cross sectional studies
investigate a population at a single point in time, lookin for predictive relationships among variables
show correlations, not causations
need to look at changes overtime to assess whether a cause and effect relationship is present
experimental design
manipulating a certain variable to see what effect it has
negative controls
treatments with no effect
positive controls
treatments that are known to have a certain effect and can be used to assess whether the experimental metholody was sound
confouding variabls
external variables affecting both the IV and DV
moderating vaiabls
strengthen or weaken relationship
if you have high SES
mediating
link between IV and DV
nonoverlapping error bars
significant difference
totipotent stem cells
ability to differentiate into any cell type in the body
cancer stem cells may be responsile for recurrence after chemo
implies they an resist chemo, replicate and differentiate as needed- self renewal
tumor
any abnormal proliferation of cells
benign tumors
remain localized, whereas malignant tumors can invade other organs and tissues in teh body by metastasis
tumor initation
single cell to proliferate abnormally- cell develops ability to bypass regulatory steps of teh cell cycle that normally help to limit mitotic prolifeeration
malgnate cells also undergo mutations that
prmote their own growth and the development of blood vessels to feed them (angiogenesis)
oncogenesis
mutations that occur by random chanc and elude the normal DNA repair machinary , or as a result of mutagenic complies like mutagens or carcinogens (UV light, chemicals)
also dysregulation of gene expression= elevated levels of genes involved with growth and proliferate
genes invovled in oncogeneisi
oncogenes; tumro suppressor genes
promote abnormal growth and proliferation; prevent tumorigenic properties
oncogenes
arise from mutations of other genes called proto-oncogenes. if not mutated, not cancer, but if mutated e= elate gene expression and turn into oncogenes
higher levels of pro-apoptopic gene expression
preidcted to slow proliferation
peptide bond that forms the backbone of proteins is stable because it
exhbits resonance stabilization
it is an amide linage between the amine group of one amino acid and the carboxylic acid group of another
amides are stable because they exhibit resonance stabilization between the lone pair on teh N and the doube bond in the carbonyl group
resonance stable- peptide bonds are planar and do not rotate freely- structural stabity
amino acids nd peptide bonds
formed by teh condensation reaction of -COOH group of one amino acid with teh -NH2 group of another
production of water
pepide bonds are broken through hydrolysis
reverse of condensation
mall and nonpolar like oxygen adn Co2 can
diffuse across the membrane
Tf
TATA box
RNA polymerase travels along teh template strand in teh (antisense)
3-5 direction, synthesizing an antiparaell complement in teh 5-3 direction (sense)
post transcriptional modifications
3’ poly A tail, 5’ cap (of 7-methylguanyate triphosphate)
prevent transcript being degraded in teh cuctsol and prepares RNA for export to nuc
and splicing
introns removed and axons together
each gene has its own transcription initiation site
polymerization
process by which nucleotides are strung together to form a single stranded RNA strand
hybridization
process of binding through complemntary nculeodies
small RNA binds to an mRNA to degrade it or prevent translation
adding of subunits to make a longer strand of macromolecule
elongation
transcrption
process of creating RNA from DNA
DNA
two complementary streams of deoxyribonucleic acid are connected via hydrogen bonding to form a DNA helix
frist stein PCR
heat the DNA to renature it and disurpt hydorgen bonds between bases
at a pH oof 7.4
a protein will have a - charge on deprotonated carboxylic acid terminal and a +1 charge on its protonated amino terminal
net charge of 0.
cationic
positie charge on side chain, so must be basic
innate immune system
includes nonspecific immune responses
general protection rather than prohection against specific pathogens that have already been encountered and remmebred
so inflammatory responses like increased vasodilation, blood vessel permeability and pain
cytokines (signalling), WBC, monocytes, eosinophils, etc.
eosinophils
granulocytes that have granules in cytoplasm and play role in promoting inflammatory responses
adaptive immune system
directed against a particular patten in which body has been previously exposed to
remembered adn quicker response
B cells and T cells- lympthocytes produced in the bone marrow
passiv immunity
involves the transfer of antibodies from one individual to another
antibodies
specific proteins produced by B lymphocytes
B cells
reconize antigen and secrete large amounts of antibodies in repeponse
T cells
correspond to the cell meditated branch of the adaptive immune system
recognizes cells that were originally self, but have been damaged by viral infections or have malfunctioned inways liely to turn them into cancel cells
erythrocute
RBC without n nucleus
no DNA
more space for oxygen carrying hemoglobin
in eukaryote, the residue most proone o phosphorylation are
serine, tyrosine (Y) and threonine (T)
phophomimetic
mimic effect of phosphorylation
glutamic acid
t E, whic is like aspartic acid
polar amino acids tend to be located on the exterior of globular proteins, facing watery environmen
nonpolar- buried inside
glycine is
achiral- not roatte plane polarized light
increasing plasma oncentrtion of aldosterone
increases sodium reabsorption in teh distal tubile
release from adreneal corex in response to low blood pressure
increase sodium resorption
drives water absorption
increases extortion of possum adn hydrogen ions in urine
antidiuretic hormone
reuce the osmolarity of blood by increasing water present without changing hte solute levels
meosisis does not mtinatian geneti cintegrity
genetic recomb for diversity
arranging nuclear DNA for transmiion to offpsirng is
noncyclical
happens once
double crossover eent
chrom arms of homologous chrom cross over in 2 diff places and therefore middle
troponin
3 types- I, C and T
skeltal muscuele and caracid not smooth
peptide bond possess a partial double bond character
due to delocalzaition of electron density from the peptide (amide) nitrogen through th epeptide carbonyl C onto the eptide carbonyl ocyegn
resonance stabilization is there
FAD2+ and NAD+
to FADH2 and HADH + H+ is oxidized
free radicuals
contain one pair of unpaired valence electrons
highly reactive oxidizing agents
aldosterone
released from teh adrenal cortex in response to low blood pressure
pumps 3 na out of the nephron lining towards the blood for every 2 potassium ions it pumps in
favors water resorption as well as sodium
too little fluid in body
reduced blood volume (lil water in blood plasma), reduced blood pressure (less liquid present to exert pressure againt teh walls of the blood vessles) and increased blood osmolarity (same solutes are present, lil solvent)
ADH
vasopressin
reduce osmolarity of hte blood by increasing the amount of water present without changing the solute levels
ANP
opposute of aldosterone
released in response to high blood volume adn decreases sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
single crossover events only affect
thend ends of chrom arms
insunlin increase
secreted in response to high blood sugar. if the body detects that there is plenty of blood sugar, stop making more, sstarting storin gas glycogen adn build up fatty acids into fats for storing energy (increasing lipid synthesis). by esterifying lipids (packing them into storage as well as increasing glycogen synthesis and decreasing gluconeogenesis (production of glucose from other non carb sources)
acylcarnitine translocate defificny
NOT hyperglycemia - enzyme stated is essential for th catabolism of FA to occur. this means that without it there will be a great abundance of FA int eh body and less energy available. glucose relied more heavily as a source of ATP nd therefore little glucsoe in the blood
will have msucele weakness, high ammonia levels , liver damage
mitcondiral DNA
from mom only!! if you see inheritance patterns with all female give to offpsirng- think mitochonridral
basic groups
NH3+: positive
beta oxidation
step 1: replace OH With thiol (a COA)
Step 2: dehydrgenate- create a double bond
step 3: FAD-FADH2 (oxidization 1)
step 4: add H20- hydrolyze- beta hydroxy !
step 5: oxidize again with b hydroxy group via NaD+-NADG to make ketone
step 6: another COA attack and leave OG acetyl coA leave and chain is minus 2 C
x linked rec
all males have it
x link dom
1 or 2 females have it, but mostly male
autosomal dom
no difference between males and females offspring
lacteals
are structures in the intestines associated with absorbing fat into the lymphatic system.
viable offsprings of trisomies
trisomy 21, 18 and 13.
aceylation
acetylation of histones is known to increase the expression of genes through transcription activation.
histone acetylation of lysine resides
Lysine is a basic amino acid and typically has a positively-charged side chain at physiological pH. When lysine is acetylated, this charge becomes neutral. Since DNA is negatively charged due to its phosphate backbone, the charge on lysine allows for tight histone-DNA interactions thanks to electrostatic attraction between the charged atoms on each molecule. Acetylation of lysine makes the residue neutral, lessening these interactions and promoting a looser structure. Loose chromatin structure is typically associated with euchromatin, the less dense, transcriptionally active chromatin structure that appears light under a microscope. In contrast, histone deacetylation will restore the positive charge to the residue, allowing the electrostatic attractions to return. Therefore, deacetylation of lysine residues on histones should lead to a denser chromatin structure and lowered transcription/gene expression.
euchchroatin
less dense , active
hetrochromaatin
tight, dense
goes from
N to C terminus in amino acid of a protein
positive to negative
competitive inhibition
the inhibitor directly competes with the substrate for the active site on the enzyme. This increases Km since it now takes more substrate to ensure half of the active sites are occupied. If enough substrate is supplied, it will outcompete the inhibitor; therefore, Vmax does not change, although more substrate is needed to reach it.
Noncompetitive inhibition
when the inhibitor does not compete with the substrate for the active site, but reduces enzyme activity by binding to another site (the allosteric site) on the enzyme. In noncompetitive inhibition, the inhibitor can combine with either the enzyme or the enzyme-substrate complex. In pure noncompetitive inhibition, the value of Vmax is decreased. Since these inhibitors do not compete with the substrate, their activity is unaffected by substrate concentration. with Km the same
Uncompetitive inhibition
when the inhibitor binds to only the enzyme-substrate complex, and inactivates it. This causes the number of active enzyme-substrate complexes to decrease, thereby decreasing Vmax. Km also decreases to exactly the same degree as Vmax. Si
bacteria
lacks introns
ALA and LEU
smallest amino acids
heaviest- trypothan
siRNA exert
Post-transcriptional control-interfere with gene expression after transcription has already occurred, but before translation. Specifically, it prevents the translation of mRNA corresponding to the target protein.
repression
Repressors are defined as protein molecules that bind with DNA or RNA to prevent eventual translation of a protein. Therefore, siRNA is not technically a repressor.
promotion
Promoters are regions of DNA that lie upstream to a given gene and initiate transcription by binding specific transcription factors that contribute to the binding of RNA polymerase
Acetylation promotes transcription by attaching acetyl groups to lysine residues on histones, making them less positively-charged and causing a looser wrapping pattern that allows transcription factors to access the genome more easily.
yep
enhancers
expression is upregulated by enhancers, which are DNA sequences that can be located further from the gene of interest, and work by binding transcription factors that twist DNA into a hairpin loop, bringing distant regions into close proximity for transcription to begin.
hypergylcemia
insulin cant take up glucose so in urine
so is ketone bodies_ In a state of extended hyperglycemia, the body relies on fat metabolism to generate energy, which produces ketone bodies that are also excreted in the urine . not proteins because thats notn due to insulin
western blotting
Western blotting gives us information about the amount of protein expressed in a cell
identify protein and RNA sequences,
PCR
gives us information about the amount of RNA expressed.
“laboratory DNA replication,” and uses a thermostable DNA polymerase and successive cycles of denaturation, annealing of primers, and extension of a new complementary strand to produce many copies of a sequence of interest.
southern blot
Southern blots are used to probe DNA for specific sequences;
Immunoassays
ntibodies cultured from antibody-producing cells can bind with great specificity to a protein antigen of interest. A protein in a mixture can be detected using a radioimmunoassay (RIA); in an RIA, the protein concentration can be assessed indirectly by measuring the extent to which the protein competes with a radioactively labeled standard for antibody binding sites.
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
olid-phase enzyme immunoassay that detects the presence of an antigen
The intensity of this signal is related to the quantity of protein antigen present in the original sample.
hybridization
binding of complementary nucleic acid strands)
electrophoresis
movement of molecules toward a charged electrod
northern blot
identify protein and RNA sequences,
edman degradation
technique used to sequence proteins via successive cleaving of terminal amino acid residues.
hypoxia
oxygen deprivation.
hyperventilization
loss of Co2 and increase of O2- leading to increased phH and and increased hemoglobin affinity to O2
organic acids
folic acid, ascorbic acid, citric acid
need a hydrogen atom directly binded to caarbon
hyperaldosteronism
low renin concentration (produces angiotensin, raises blood pressure if it is high renin)
aldosterone increase H20 and Na reabsorption in the kidneys while exhacnging Na ions for K+ ions- high blood sodium and low k+ ions which increases blood pressure
cell membrane is different than
endosomal membrane
transduction
form of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria in which bacteriopahes (viruses thet infect bacteria) transmit genomic material
conugation
horizontal gene transfer process in bacteria in which plasmid DNA is transferred from 1 bacteria to another through a pilus- viruses not invovled
transformation
drect uptake of genetic material from teh environment in bacteria and is not mediated b yviruses
binary fission
bacteria reproduce assexually
intra interaction
located on the same chain
epithelial cells
G0 phase is unliley due to it need to divide
Malonyl-CoA is an intermediate in cytosolic fatty acid biosynthesis. Its inhibition of the β-oxidation of long-chain fatty acids:
by preventing the movement of long-chain acyl groups into the mitochondrial matrix, thereby preventing a futile cycle of fatty acid synthesis followed by immediate β-oxidative catabolism of those newly synthesized fatty acids.
Methylation and deamination cannot convert a purine to a pyrimidine or vice versa
because purines and pyrimidines differ based on whether they have a 1-ring structure (pyrimidines) or a 2-ring structure (purines), and the loss or addition of a single functional group (as in (de)methylation or (de)amination) is insufficient to convert between these very different structures.
DS-PAGE is used to grant a uniform negative charge to all proteins in an assay.
so if a lot of positive charges, less distances
beta sheets
3 strands
SN2 promotion
acetone due to dipole moment
natural immunity
immunity that is presnet in teh iniviuda at birth prior to exposure to pathogen or antigen, adn includes intact skin, salivary enzymes, neutrophils, etc
cell mediated immunity
immune response that doe snot invove antibodies, but hagocutes, lympthocutes and cutlines in response to an antigen
passive immunity
transfer of immunity from mom to fetus - antibodies to mom o baby
nonspecific immunity
anatomic barriers, secretory moleucles and cell components
splicing
DNA not RNA
Since gastrointenstinal cells divide more often than neurons, they would be not be expected to spend the same amount of time in all cell cycle phases.
and instead spend less time in G0 since they divide mre than neurons
looking glass self
a person’s self grows out of society’s interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others.The term refers to people shaping their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them. If the man feels bias from society and/or police (as mentioned in paragraph 1) the looking-glass self theory states that he will internalize the bias/stigmatization directed towards him.
ecocentric bias
the tendency to overstress changes between the past and present in order to make oneself appear more worthy or competent than one actually is. According to the results from several conducted studies, individuals are also more likely to favor circumstances that are beneficial to themselves compared to those that favor the people around them.
attrbutional bias
a cognitive bias that refers to the systematic errors made when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others’ behaviors. People constantly make attributions regarding the cause of behaviors; however, attributions do not always accurately mirror reality. Rather than operating as objective perceivers, people are prone to perceptual errors that lead to biased interpretations of their social world. If police know the welfare schedule and they make harsher judgements based on their perceptions of those on welfare, this would be attributional bias.
framing bias
Framing bias (or the framing effect) is one of many factors which affect a person's decisions. Just like how a picture may be framed in many different ways to change the viewer's impression, the way an option or decision is presented to a person will change how they feel about it and influence their likelihood to make a particular choice. An example from everyday life could be the way that two different people frame their beliefs about the same used car. One person might say, "oh, it's a real reliable car", giving off a positive impression, and the other might say, "it's old and worn", spinning a negative impression.
automation bias
the tendency to excessively depend on automated systems, which can lead to erroneous automated information overriding correct decisions.
intragenerational mobility
describes changes in social class that occur within one lifetime.
intergenerational mobility
describes upward or downward movement in social class between two or more generations.
meritocracy
escribes a society in which individuals’ mobility is determined by their achieved status, talent, and work. In a meritocracy, every individual will have equal opportunity to succeed.
social reproduction
Social reproduction describes a phenomenon in which poverty tends to beget poverty, and wealth tends to beget wealth across generations. This is not an example of social reproduction because the second generation of immigrants experiences less poverty than the first generation.
self serving bias
the tendency to attribute good outcomes with internal factors (for example, hard work), and ascribe bad outcomes to external factors (boss not giving a raise).
motor neurons are
EFFERENT
sensory nerons are
AFFERENT
availbailty heuristic
recallign information most available
confirmation bias
selectively finding evidence to support your vies
expectatio bias
expectations influence behavior
ecological validity
how findings from an experimental setting can be generalized to the environmental considerations in the real world.
construct validty
does it rlly measure what is it supposed to measure
Rorschach inkblot test
subjective personality assessment (patients project their own subjective feelings, perceptions, and thoughts onto the assessment stimuli, yielding results that are open for inaccuracy ) and projective personality assessment (participant to respond, and then their response is assessed for meaning )
objectuve personality test
measures specific personality characteristics based on a set of discrete options, s
webers law
Weber’s law postulates that there is a linear relationship, not a non-linear relationship, between the intensity of a stimulus and its detection.
differential association theoretical perspective?
individuals engage in criminal choices because they are exposed to it, while individuals who don’t commit crimes have not been exposed to this type of behavior.
labeling theory
Repeated messages in school that students are expected to uphold prosocial values
an individual who commits actions that are frowned upon by society, becomes regarded as a criminal or a deviant only when he is labeled as such.
strain theory
Deemphasizing the importance of values, such as material wealth, that would lead individuals to commit crimes
, strain theory states that social structures within society may pressure citizens to commit crime
behavioral approach
Increasing penalties for crime to a degree that individuals are dissuaded from committing it
Wernickes aphasia
may speak in long, complete sentences that have no meaning, adding unnecessary words and even creating made-up words.
aphasia
is the loss of the ability to understand speech or communicate using language.
Broca’s aphasia
esults from damage to a part of the brain called Broca’s area, which is located in the frontal lobe, usually on the left side.ay understand speech and know what they want to say, but they frequently speak in short phrases that are produced with great effort.
expert power
ends to motivate through using his knowledge of subject matter, which would likely appeal to high-motivation and high-knowledge people.
referent power
exerts control by appealing to others’ desire to belong to a group. This type of control is most likely to appeal to individuals through external factors, such as appearing desirable or feeling included and not knowledge or logic or evidence. Thus, a low-motivation, low-knowledge individual would most likely be motivated by this type of persuasion.
legitamate power
such as a president, exert power through the legitimacy of their role.
coercive power
exert control through force or its threat.
confabulation
aking up memories to fill in gaps and then believing that those memories are true. When asked to recognize sentences, Korsakoff’s patients (at a rate vastly higher than normal) picked incorrect sentences, suggesting they were confabulating the memory of having heard those sentences.
declarative memory.
memory of fqcts and events
hippocampus
Korsakoff’s syndrome
is a neurological disorder that is most often seen in people who have severe prolonged alcoholism, as a result of which they experience severe thiamine deficiency.
estrogen inhibits
bone reabsorption
sperm is produced in the
sertoli cells, not leydig
externl vadlity
External validity describes the generalizability of the study,
implicit attitudes
unconcious attidues
covert
unobservabale
Attitude polarization
Attitude polarization describes changes in attitudes among people in groups – tendency to go to the extreme.
learned helplessness
depression, escribes a situation in which a person makes many attempts to solve a problem and they are not effective.
status quo bias
Status quo bias is the tendency to avoid situations or actions that may produce change, instead preferring to choose action that will keep normalcy, or the status quo.
moral hypocrisy
Moral hypocrisy is a situation in which a person appears to be a moral person but doesn’t actually try to pursue moral behavior.
Symbolic interactionism
meaning and symbols highlight people interactions with each other
Social constructionism
Social constructionism wxamines the development of jointly constructed understandings of the world. It assumes that understanding, significance, and meaning are developed not separately within the individual, but in coordination with other human beings.
exchange rational theory
Exchange-rational theory posits that patterns of behavior in societies reflect the choices made by individuals as they try to maximize their benefits and minimize their costs.
Weber–Fechner law
states that the just-noticeable difference between two stimuli is directly proportional to the magnitude of the stimuli. If a 3 kg change creates a just-noticeable difference starting at 5 kg, tripling the initial mass will require triple the difference. Thus, the answer is 9 kg.
increased blood pressure
increased
During the Krebs cycle, each unit of acetyl-CoA forms three molecules of NADH and one molecule of FADH2. In other words, the NADH-to-FADH2 ratio is 3:1.
yes
how many molecules of ATP are formed per molecule of acetyl-CoA?
12
sugar phosphate backbone is held together by
phosphodiester bonds
The normal flora of the large intestine consists mainly of:
bacteria
Bacterial antibiotic resistance is frequently conveyed by:
Plasmids are small, circular segments of DNA that can be shared between bacteria. Antibiotic resistance can be spread via genes carried on plasmids.
lac operon:
The lac operon is an inducible system. When lactose is absent, a repressor binds to the operator region of the operon, blocking expression. When lactose is present, allolactose binds the repressor instead, allowing expression.
he formation of a disulfide bond involves oxidation, so it can be coupled with a reduction reaction.
NAD+ is reduced to form NADH.
all steroid hormones are derivatives of cholesterol.
including estrogen and testertrone
e role of cholesterol in the membrane is to provide fluidity within the otherwise rigid phospholipid structure.
fluid not rigid
A lipid is saponified to yield two fatty acid salts and one glycerol-based molecule.
2 NAOH
Disulfide bonds between two cysteine residues
teritary adn quart structures of proteins
Side group interactions between amino acids
tertuary structure of proteins
The two most commonly encountered secondary structures of a polypeptide chain are α-helices and β-pleated sheets. S
Secondary structure refers to the shape of a folding protein due exclusively to hydrogen bonding between its backbone amide and carbonyl groups. Secondary structure does not include bonding between the R-groups of amino acids, hydrophobic interactions, or other interactions associated with tertiary structure.
The membrane potential is always measured in terms of the inside of the cell relative to the extracellular fluid.
for membrane potential
Since it is a transmembrane protein most of the amino acids must be hydrophobic.
VILP-TAMP
comp inhibitors
Kmax increase, Vmax same
noncomp inhibtors
vmax decrease, Km same
uncomp
vmax and km decrease
Hund’s rule.
states that every orbital at the same energy level needs to be occupied by one electron before any one orbital can be occupied by 2. This rule is followed on the diagram. For example, if π*2px was occupied by an up and down spin electron, this rule would be violated.
Hund’s rule.
states that every orbital at the same energy level needs to be occupied by one electron before any one orbital can be occupied by 2. This rule is followed on the diagram. For example, if π*2px was occupied by an up and down spin electron, this rule would be violated.
Aufbau principle
The Aufbau principle says that electrons fill orbitals of the lowest energy first. Remember that energy increases as you go up the diagram – thus the two orbitals at the π2pmust be filled before the σ2p level can have an electron. If this is your first time seeing a molecular orbital diagram, remember that it follows the same rules as a regular energy level diagram, and energy still increases going up the diagram.
Pauli exclusion
The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers. This rule is followed on the diagram. For example, if π*2px was occupied by two up spin electrons, this rule would be violated.
keratin, which is an intermediate filament.
yes
ntaining the greatest number of degrees of unsaturation (6) is most likely to be oxidized.
yes
ntaining the greatest number of degrees of unsaturation (6) is most likely to be oxidized.
yes
