Psych part 2 Flashcards
What is developmental psychology?
The study of age-related changes in behaviour and mental processes from conception onward
What are the three developmental psychological issues?
Nature and nuture
Change and stability
Continuity vs stages
What are the beginning things that happen in conceptions?
Conception(fertilization
Fetus(9 weeks)
Danger(alcohol, teratogen)
Learning(sound)
what are the newborn reflexes?
Rooting reflex
Sucking reflex
Crying when hungry
Concerning innate abilities what do newborns prefer?
Faces
Who developed the cognitive scale for children?
Jean Piaget
What are the different type of schemas and explain them
Assimilation
absorbing new information into existing schemas
Accommodation
adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to better fit with new information
What are the 4 stages according to piaget’s theory?
Sensorimotor
Pre-operational
Concrete operational
Formal operation
What’s the sensorimotor stage?
Birth to 2yrs
Explore the world with their senses
Develop object permanence and stranger anxiety during this stage.
What’s the pre-operational stage?
2 to 7yrs
Represent their schemas with words and image
Engage in pretend plays
Before age 6- lack conservation: quality remains the same regardless of quality
What are children’s 2 ways of thinking?
Egocentric and theory of mind
What’s egocentric?
Cannot take another person’s perspective or point of view
A child holds up a picture to show her dad, but she holds it so that she can see it and her dad only sees the back of the paper
What the theory of mind?
The ability to take another’s perspective and to infer others’ mental states.
What’s concrete operational stage?
Children now grasp conservation problems
Children can also transform mathematical functions
4 + 8 = 12 and 12 – 4 = 8
Cannot reason abstractly or hypothetically
What’s formal operational stage?
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
ability goes to concrete to abstract
Can reason through problems
Recognize hypocrisy
Imagine realities that might exist (what if)
Logic and reasoning are developing
What reflections were made on Piaget’s theory?
Development is a continuous process.
Children express their mental abilities and operations at an earlier age than Piaget thought.
Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition.
What is the origin of attachment? and who was it discovered by?
Harlow (1958)
Monkeys taken away from their mothers
Given two surrogate mothers
Wire mother
Cloth mother
What are the different types of attachments in children?
Secure
Avoidant
Anxious
What’s secure attachment?
secure in nature (what they aim to be) seek contact with mom when
What’s avoidant attachment?
insecure in nature, indifference with leaving and coming back neutral
What’s anxious attachment?
child clinging to mom, loudly upset and remain upset, insecure
Is it true that an attachment patterns we develop as infants carry into our adulthood?
It’s true
What are the 4 different types of parenting styles?
Authoritarian
(Coercive)
Permissive
(Unrestraining)
Negligent
(Uninvolved)
Authoritative
(Confrontive)
What’s authoritarian parenting style?
Parents impose rules “because I said so”
and expect obedience. High control and little warmth
What’s permissive parenting style?
Parents submit to kids’ desires, not enforcing
limits or standards for child behaviour. light level of warmth but low level of control
What’s the negligent parenting style?
Parents are careless, inattentive, and do not seek a close relationship with their children. little to no warmth and control
What’s the authoritative parenting style?
arents enforce rules, limits, and standards
but also explain, discuss, listen, and express
respect for child’s ideas and wishes. high control and warmth
What’s Kohlberg moral development theory?
Wanted to know how people reasoned through moral dilemmas
The answer isn’t as important as the reasoning behind it
What are the 3 levels of moral thinking?
Pre-convential, Conventional and post-conventional
What’s pre-conventional?
Before the age of 9,Self based
Obey rules to avoid punishment or gain a reward
What’s conventional?
Early adolescence, societal perspective
Uphold and rules to again social approval or maintain social order
What’s post-conventional?
High principles, adolescence and beyond
Actions reflect belief in basic right and self defined ethical principles
What’s moral institution?
Gut feeling/emotions
disgust and joy
How many social developments stages are there?
8
What the social development stage of infancy?
(newborn-1yrs)
trust vs mistrust
What the social development stage of toddlerhood? (1-3yrs)
autonomy vs shame and doubt
What the social development stage of preschool? (3-6yrs)
Initiative vs guilt
What the social development stage of elementary school? (6 to puberty)
competency vs inferiority
What the social development stage of adolescence? (teen-20s)
identity vs role confusion
What the social development stage of young adulthood? (20s-40s)
Intimacy vs isolation
What the social development stage of middle adulthood? (40s-60s)
Generativity vs stagnation
What the social development stage of late adulthood? ( late 60s and up)
integrity vs despair
True or false: Recall doesn’t deteriorate but recognition does.
False
True or false: Vocabulary and general knowledge increase with age
true
What are dementia symptoms?
Can’t recall recent and familiar events/objects
Emotional unpredictability
Confusion and disorientation
Neuro-cognitive disorder
What brain changes occur with Alzheimer’s disease?
Loss of brain cells and neural networks
Deterioration of acetylcholine neurons
Plaques at neuron tips
Dramatic shrinking of the brain
What arises first in healthy adulthood according to Erik Erikson?
intimacy issue (a.k.a. affiliation, attachment, connectedness
What arises later in healthy adulthood according to Erik Erikson
generativity issue (achievement, productivity, competence)
What does Sigmund say about healthy adulthood?
the healthy adult must find ways to love and to work
Is knowledge learned?
yes
Who are the 2 psychologist with behavorist?
Watson and skinner
What’s classic conditioning?
Learning by associating two stimuli together
When does learning occur with classic conditioning?
Learning occurs when you recognize that one event predicts another
What’s a part of a natural respnse?
Unconditioned stimulus & Unconditioned Response
What’s a part of no natural response?
Neutral stimulus
What occurs during learning?
Repeatedly pair (unconditioned stimulus)US and Neutral Stimulus
What occurs after learning?
Conditioned stimulus and conditioned response
What’s the Pavlov’s experiment?
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation (Unconditioned Response, UR).
The tone (Neutral Stimulus) does not
During conditioning, the Neutral Stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR).
After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
What does Watson say about Classical conditioning of fear?
Applied classical conditioning principles to humans
Acquisition of phobias
Little Albert
Development is simply learned responses from our environment
We fear what we’ve learned to fear
What is the “Little Albert” experiment?
using classical conditioning to create a fear of white mice in Albert.
Fear of loud noise but not to mice, but when paring loud sound with the mouse that how he started getting scare
CS- mouse with noise
CR- fear to the mouse
Neutral before paring occurs
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
Acquisition
Generalization
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
What’s acquisition?
The CS needs to come before the US for acquisition to occur.
Timing is important , it should be done half a second prior before the unconditional stimulus
What’s generalization?
Learned response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus (CS)
The more the stimulus are similar the more it will be general
What’s generalization?
Learned response to stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus (CS)
The more the stimulus are similar the more it will be general
What’s Discrimination?
Learned response to a specific stimulus, but not to other similar stimuli. opposite of generalization
cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the probable consequences of a response
What’s extinction?
US withheld when CS presented leads to gradual weakening or suppression of a previously conditioned response (CR)
What’s spontaneous recovery?
reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response (CR)
What’s the Thorndike’s Experiment?
Establish the power of consequence and outcome with voluntary action
If a behaviour is followed by a satisfying response, the behaviour will increase
If a behaviour is followed by an unpleasant response, the behaviour will lessen
What did the tendency to perform in the first & later trial?
Exploring
Sniffing
Grooming
Reaching
Scratching
Reaching with paw and lever-pressing
What’s operant conditioning?
Learning by associating a behaviour with its consequences
A child learns that when they reach up and smile, someone picks them up
You learn that when you ask nicely, you are more likely to get what you want
We voluntary participate in behaviour
Do things for a positive outcome
What’s skinner’s classic experiments?
Control
Behaviour to see the consequences in details
Deliver food and the rat would be put inside after it became used to it
Then he out the leaver than the rat pressed on it to get food
The consequence of pressing it was desirable
What are the basic principles to increase behaviour?
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
What’s reinforcement?
strengthens a response, making it more likely to occur again in the future
What’s positive reinforcement?
Add a desirable stimulus
What’s a negative reinforcement?
Remove an aversive stimulus
How do you differ between reinforcement & punishment?
Increasing– reinforcement
Decreasing–punishment
How do you differ between positive and negative punishment/reinforcement?
Given–positive
Taken away– negative
What are the drawbacks of punishment ?
Punished behaviour is suppressed, not forgotten.
It teaches discrimination among situations.
It can teach fear.
Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling it as a way to cope with problems.
Punishment often leads to negative effects
Punishment must follow crime
Punishment needs to fit the crime
Must be consistent manner
Explain why they are being punished
What are the 4 reinforced schedules?
Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval and variable interval
What’s fixed ratio?
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
What’s variable ratio?
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
What’s fixed interval?
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
What’s variable interval?
A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
What’s shaping?
Shaping trained this rat to sniff out mines and this manatee to discriminate objects of different shapes, colours and sizes.
What’s the difference in conditioning?
Classical
Delivery of the reinforcement (UR) is controlled by experimenter
Responses are involuntary
Salivating
Fear
Operant
Delivery of the reinforcement is controlled by the participant (their behaviour)
Responses are voluntary
Pressing lever
Cleaning room
What’s observational learning?
Learning new behaviours or information by watching others and imitating them
Attention
Retention
Production processes
Motivation
What’s the social learning Theory?
Children watched a film of an adult playing with a Bobo doll
Adult was either aggressive (used a mallet) or not
The kids were later brought into a room with toys
Including a Bobo doll & mallet
Kids who saw the aggressive adult modelled their aggressive behaviour
True or false: Reinforcement is also involved
True
What are mirror neurons?
When we watch others doing or feeling something, neurons fire in patterns that would fire if we were doing the action or having the feeling ourselves. they fire only to reflect the actions or feelings of others.
What are considerations for the role of cognition?
Learned helplessness
Beliefs about reinforcement
Self-evaluations
What are considerations for the biological constraints?
Can’t learn some behaviours
Can’t unlearn others
What are biological effects?
There are some things you can – and others that you cannot – condition an animal to do
Can condition a raccoon to play basketball
Cannot condition chickens to play basketball
Taste Aversions – Strong CS-US association after only one trial
What’s a memory?
any indication that learning has persisted over time.
It is our ability to store and retrieve information.
Evidence that learning persists: recall, recognition, and relearning.
What would happen if memory was nonexistent?
everyone would be a stranger to you
every language foreign
every task new
you yourself would be a stranger to you
True or false: Memory is exact
False
Memory is a reconstruction, not a replication, of reality
What are the 3 component in the information processing approach?
Encoding, storage and retrieval
What are the 3 stages of the memory model?
Sensory memory
Working/short-term memory
Longterm memory storage
What’s the whole report?
The exposure time for the stimulus is so small
that items cannot be rehearsed.
What’s the partial report?
sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally thought.
What’s working memory?
Also called short-term memory
It is much more than just a passive, temporary holding area.
What’s capacity and who is the psychologist correlated to it?
George Miller
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information (1956).
What’s capacity and who is the psychologist correlated to it?
George Miller
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information (1956).
What’s chunking?
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units (often occurs automatically).
What’s Mnemonics?
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
What’s rehearsal and who’s the psychologist correlated with it?
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables
The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to relearn them on Day 2.
What’s longterm memory?
Essentially unlimited capacity store.
What’s a dual-track memory
Effortful processing & automatic processing
What’s effortful processing?
Explicit memories (also called declarative memories)
What’s automatic processing?
Produces implicit memories (also called non-declarative memories).
Implicit memories include procedural memories for automatic skills.
We automatically process information about space, time, and frequency.
What’s retrieval?
Getting information out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.
What’s context effects?
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land
What are the key theories as to why we forget?
Decay
Encoding failure
Retrieval failure(Interference & Motivated forgetting)
What’s storage decay?
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve – The course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time.
What’s retrieval failure?
Memories stored in LTM are momentarily inaccessible
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
What are the 2 forms of interference
Retroactive - backward-acting
Proactive- forward-acting
What the importance of sleep?
Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, it
leads to better recall.
What’s motivated forgetting?
People unknowingly revise their memories.
What’s repression?
A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
Why do we forget?
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage. We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.
What amnesia?
Memory loss from brain injury or trauma
What’s Anterograde:
Encoding failure?
What’s retrograde?
Retrieval failure?
What’s serial position effect?
it’s not only what you say, sometimes it’s when you say it that matters
What’s flashbulb memory?
Vivid and lasting images are associated with surprising or strongly emotional events.
Feel more accurate than other memories
How do you measure the accuracy of flashbulb memories?
Asked people to remember what they were doing when they first heard about the Challenger shuttle explosion
Asked them again 2½ years later
Measured the similarity of both memory reports
What’s memory construction errors?
While tapping into our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent.
What’s misinformation effect?
Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
What’s source amnesia?
Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.
What’s misinformation and imagination effects?
Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event, depiction of the actual accident
what does research show about constructed memories?
that if false memories (lost at the mall or nearly drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) memories.
How can you improve your memory?
Rehearse repeatedly.
Make material meaningful.
Activate retrieval cues.
Use mnemonic devices.
Minimize interference.
Sleep more.
Test your own knowledge, preferably using recall.
What’s technical accuracy?
Recalling or recognizing exactly what was experienced
In general, quite poor
Who’s the psychologist associated with the monkey attachment
Harlow
Who developed moral development?
Kohlberg
Who developed the psychosocial development (social development)?
Erik Erikson
Who created the Law of effect?
Thorndike
Who created the modified three stages of memory model?And how many stages are there?
Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968
5 stages
Who created the context effects?
Godden & Baddeley, 1975)
