psych 315 - M2 Flashcards

Question

Erikson's Legacy

Answer 1

- (+) helps think about major themes in different stages in development - (+) highlights importance of identity in development - (+) highlights lifespan development up: does not end, but goes to adulthood - (-) specifics may not hold through: ideas are vague and difficult to test

Answer 2

- (+) thinks about broad role of context beyond immediate environment - (+) thinks about influence of policies

Answer 3

- **[0-2] infancy** - has early implicit awareness - sees self as a _separate entity_ and an _active causal agent_ - i.e. rooting reflex: turn head if you stroke cheek - i.e. stare longer at videos of themselves - [~18mo] can pass rouge test — sees themselves as a unique being - [~2] recognize self in pictures, label self using name/pronouns, use category label for self (”i’m a boy”) - **[3-6] early childhood:** can describe themselves - focuses on _concrete, observable features_ (”my room is pink”) - unrealistically _positive_ (”i’m really strong”) - **[6-12] middle childhood** - begins to refer to _global characteristics:_ describes you across situations, not just within one context (i.e. “i am nice”) -- but still fairly concrete - more _realistic_ and balanced — linked to actual competencies - increased social comparisons - **adolescence** - nuanced view of self —_sense of complexity_ *(”i’m shy but also outgoing”)* - understand role of situations, context and perspectives — we can be _different in different contexts_ - more abstract and psychological (”i’m sensitive”) - begin to think about future and possible selves - begin to develop a coherent / integrated self - better understanding of self across time and place - we can be different in different contexts - characteristics: - **false self behaviour:** intentionally presents false impression to others (i.e. pretend to be cool) - **personal fable:** belief that our own experiences are unique and novel - **imaginary audience:** belief that everyone is focused on you

Answer 4

- study personality using the five-factor model: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience - influenced by genetics and environments — environment becomes somewhat more important as people age - can inherit temperamental predispositions - predispositions may harden and become organized in response to the environment - many core personality traits are stable between childhood—adolescence, and adolescence—young adult - many popular stereotypes about adolescence being a time of “rebirth” - but research does not show that there is an upheaval of personality

Answer 5

- can start measuring at age 8 - difficult to measure in early childhood - becomes more differentiated with development - self-esteem starts high → declines throughout childhood → has mixed findings during adolescence

Answer 6

- **cognitive development:** - as our ability to think becomes more abstract, the way we see ourselves gets more complex as well - i.e. lose egocentrism = takes into account others’ feedback and is less biased - **parents:** - *warm and supportive:* child tends to have *more positive* self concepts - _family narrative:_ type of stories that families tell about child’s life (impactful, as we don’t have clear memory of own childhood) - **peers** (how they evaluate us) - **culture:** - different cultures talk about self and use descriptors differently - individualistic: focus on self and success → internal traits (”i am wonderful and a very smart person. i’m a helpful and cooperative girl”) - collectivistic: focus on role and success within group → relational and situational traits (”i’m my mom and dad’s child. i’m a hard-working child”) - Wang (2004) - Euro-American: use more private and abstract descriptors - Chinese: use more collective, public and specific descriptors

Answer 7

- **individual differences** - **gender:** males have higher self-esteem than females (more pronounced in industrialized societies - **race:** black > white > indigenous > asian - **approval of others:** parents, peers, teachers, etc - **societal standards:** i.e media, attractiveness, etc - physical attractiveness very strongly tied - **culture:** different cultures have different meanings of self-esteem - individual: focus on individual achievement - collective: focus on achievements and status within group - emphasizes humbleness — thinking positively about self is not ideal

Answer 8

- high self-esteem → better outcomes (school, well-being) - low self-esteem → emotional and behavioural problems - self-esteem movement: programs designed to boost self-esteem to boost academic performance - believed that self-esteem caused academic success - but program was not effective - maybe academic success predicts self-esteem, and so this program won’t work - maybe unearned positive enforcement does not work (have to be based in reality)

Answer 9

- adolescence is a time of crisis of identity v role confusion (like putting together a puzzle) - current theorists see it more as a process instead of a crisis - psychosocial moratorium: time where individuals are free from excessive obligations and can experiment with different roles - classic example: university - not necessary for development, but would be easier with it

Answer 10

- **identity diffusion: no exploration, no commitment** - very common in start of adolescence - only problematic if it continues for a long time - associated with high levels of behavioural and emotional problems - associated with difficulties with relationships - more likely to report _low levels of parental warmth and support_ - **identity foreclosure: no exploration, has commitment** - also very common in start of adolescence - correlated with _low anxiety and general life satisfaction_ - associated with _higher levels of prejudice_ - associated with need for _social approval_ and _lower sense of autonomy_ - more common with _controlling or overly-protective parents_ - **moratorium: has exploration, no commitment** - *next most common* — usually ages 17-19 - seen as fairly positive state, but with some links to _anxiety and conflict with authority_ - problematic if it continues for a long time - extended moratorium without commitment = anxiety - overly-thinking about who you are and how to act = rumination - **identity achievement: has exploration, has commitment** - associated with _positive outcomes_ — high achievement, maturity, intimacy - _agency:_ feels control and responsibility for one’s own actions

Answer 11

- **ethnic-racial identification:** how someone labels their race - [3-5] developed in childhood, seen in young children - **ethnic racial identity:** a person’s thoughts and feelings about their race and ethnicity, and the process of developing those thoughts and feelings - [adolescence] questions of identity heightened

Answer 12

- **unexamined ethnic identity → exploration → resolution** [can move back and forth between exploration and resolution] - unexamined ethnic identity: childhood - have identification, but no deeper connotations about it - exploration: early adolescence - usually triggered by an experience or event → realization of “difference” - resolution - feel confidence about racial identity - how we feel about race is now incorporated in who we are

Answer 13

- **affirmation (= private regard):** how good/bad a person feels about being part of their ethnic / racial group - feel positive = protective factor → do better in emotional and mental health domains - but will be affected by other components of ERI - **public regard:** how positively a person believes other people view their ethnic/racial group - **centrality:** how important a person’s ethnic/racial group is to their identity - too much centrality can also be negative → more impacted by experiences of discrimination - **salience:** how important a person feels their ethnic/racial group is to a particular situation

Answer 14

- **assimilated:** identify with majority, don’t identify with minority - a lot of emphasis on assimilation historically - barriers (discrimination, micro-aggressions) lead to marginalize - **bicultural:** identify with majority, identify with minority - associated with positive outcomes - in some cases, can be negative: if history is negative, identification wth majority culture can be negative - **marginalized:** don’t identify with majority, don’t identify with minority - **separated:** don’t identify with majority, identify with minority - can be more ideal for some individuals

Answer 15

- positive ERI leads to: - lower levels of depressive symptoms - higher self-esteem - positive academic outcomes - protection in the face of discrimination (acts as buffer)

Answer 16

- **ethnic racial socialization:** where children are taught about race — typically by parents - *more common in marginalized groups* - common themes: - importance of one’s culture - dealing with racism - succeeding in mainstream society - **school:** children spend more and more time at school as they get older - _context of school_: diversity, segregation - more diversity = more positive ERI - less segregation = more positive ERI - openness: seeing race as “taboo” v openly discussing it - affinity groups of same race: opportunities to discuss shared experiences - formal curriculum: race as part of the curriculum - i.e. the identity project: intervention to boost ERI exploration - results: more ERI exploration → predicts ERI resolution - one year later: higher self esteem, lower depressive symptoms, higher grades

Answer 17

- identity project: promoting adolescent's ERI exploration and resolution (8-week curriculum) - high levels of exploration predicts increase in resolution - use ethnic identity scale brief to measure ERI at T1, T2, T3 - still many factors to consider: affect on minority v majority, classroom composition, selection bias in choosing course

Answer 18

- sex assigned at birth: based on objectively measurable biological organs, hormones, chromosomes - gender / gender identity: a person’s sense of self as gendered - more psychological sense of self - how you identify, how you feel - independent from sex assigned at birth — does not have to match - gender expression: how a person demonstrates their gender - how we enact gender: masculine / feminine / androgynous - independent from gender identity — does not have to match - gender role: societal expectations of gendered behaviour / thought / trait - should have different interests, behaviours, appearance - our expectations on gender are pretty similar across cultures - boys: aggressive, competitive, assertive, risky, independent, athletic - girls: affectionate, gentle, loves children, compassionate, understanding

Answer 19

- [3 mo] can discriminate between male and female, but focus on superficial cues - will struggle if you remove hair from females / add hair to males - [8 mo] look longer at own-gender stereotyped toys - [2 yrs] look longer at gender-inconsistent pictures (i.e. the male putting on make-up)

Answer 20

- changes in cognitive development shifts thinking about gender > Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory - [2-2.5] gender identity - children can label their own gender and consistently identify their own gender - [3-4] gender stability - start to understand gender as stable across time - [5-7] gender constancy / consistency - start to understand gender is constant - across situations - across appearances - across changes of outward factors - shift from gender essentialism to understanding gender as socially-influenced - [4-5] sees gender as essentialist → will act in gender-stereotyped ways regardless of upbringing - [9] sees gender as socially-influenced - children all across development will see gender as biological essentialist - knowledge of gender stereotypes - goes from superficially based to deeper characteristics (i.e. toys, clothes → assertive v shy) - [5-7] peak of rigidity of stereotypes

Answer 21

- **gender-role intensification:** heightened concern about adhering to traditional gender roles - due to puberty — changes in body (more gender differences), changes in sexual attraction - **gender-role flexibility:** allowing for traditional gender role conventions to be transcended - paradox? - gender-role intensification: more in terms of behaviour (need to fit into gender role → concerned about how to behave) - more common in early / middle adolescence - gender-role flexibility: more in terms of beliefs (focused on acceptance and letting others be flexible) - more common in later adolescence

Answer 22

- conception - [prenatal] chromosomes - [1-2 mo gestation] physiological differences - [2.5-3.5 mo gestation] external genitals emerge - infancy and childhood: only few physical differences and skills (aside from genitalia) - puberty: many changes occur → capability of sexual reproduction - increase in physical growth (more pronounced in boys) - primary and secondary sex characteristics - increased sex-linked differences - boys have greater physical speed and strength

Answer 23

- IQ tests - girls are slightly better at verbal tasks - boys are slightly better at spatial tasks - academic performance - girls have slightly better grades / performance → but there is a lot of variability depending on age and subject - beliefs / interests - actual differences are really small, but differences in beliefs tend to be much bigger - boys think they’re better at math — difference goes away with age - girls think they’re better in language arts — difference increases with age

Answer 24

- girls express more happiness and sadness - boys express more anger - girls are better at expressing, decoding and managing emotions - mental health → girls more likely to experience depression, low self-esteem

Answer 25

- girls more likely to emphasize intimacy and support - boys more likely to emphasize power and dominance - girls more likely to engage in indirect aggression - boys more likely to engage in direct aggression

Answer 26

- traits that are adaptive for human survival would continue to be selected - i.e. maternal care is useful for infant survival → girls more likely to play collaboratively / caring way - issue: difficult to test — more of a hypothesis - role of hormones: differences in androgen and estrogen - testosterone: higher in males, estrogen: higher in females - leads to gender differences - i.e. congenital adrenal hyperplasia: genetic female (XX) with high androgen → more likely to show traditionally male behaviour - 2 types of influences: - organizational influence: hormones influence development of characteristics - activational influence: changes in hormone levels stimulate changes in neural activation / behaviour - changes in level of hormones may lead to differences in behaviour / interests - more seen in adolescents with puberty (big changes in hormone levels) - i.e. males - higher androgen = more interest in sexual activity and aggression - difference in brain structure and function - small difference in adults, not much evidence in children

Answer 27

- observation — model gender-typed behaviour - reinforcement — i.e. boys told not to cry - Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory - i.e. microsystem: parent expectations, teachers, influence of peers - i.e. exosystem: fashion industry

Answer 28

- Kohlberg’s Cognitive Development Theory: changes in thinking about gender → changes adherence to gender-typed behaviour - gender stability = increased rigidity - gender constancy = increased flexibility - gender schema theory - our schema on gender guide our behaviour - we remember things that fit into gender schema better (i.e. remember story better when its about male firefighter) - schema are active constructions that change over time - based on stereotypes on gender - based on personal experiences (that don’t hold true to cultural expectations)

Answer 29

- sense of self as gendered that is an internal / psychological experience - transgender: one’s gender identity/expression differs from assigned sex/gender - cisgender: gender identity matches assigned sex/gender - genderqueer: individual rejects the binary categorization of gender - agender / gender-neutral: individual does not identify as any gender

Answer 30

- gender development appears similar for trans and cis youth, but trans youth and their siblings are more willing to view gender as flexible - similarities - gender development: implicit gender identity, gender preferences, gender-typed behaviour, gender stereotyping - gender essentialism: shown at at a young age - differences: - gender stability: - self-stability: gender as stable in the future, gender as unstable in the past - third-party-stability: think of gender as less stable (more flexible when thinking for third party) - gender constancy: slightly more likely to view gender as stable across contexts at age 3-5

Answer 31

- 3-5: socially-transitioned trans do not diff with cis on expressed gender - but, less likely to believe that - gender at birth matches current birth - other people’s gender is stable (+ their siblings too)

Answer 32

- see increased risk of mental health challenges - socially-transitioned trans youth may have better mental health outcomes than trans youth who may not be socially transitioned - socially transitioned sample is younger and higher income - socially transitioned sample may be better supported by family / environment

Answer 33

- gender development appears similar in trans and cis youth - implicit gender identity → similar to cis: responds quickly to gender-positive - gender preference - gender-typed behaviour - gender stereotyping → shows that biological influences and early socialization influences cannot fully explain gender development! → even biology and socialization can still result in a different gender identity - trans youth (+ their siblings) may be more willing to view gender as flexible - shows experiences with gender do appear to impact how children think about gender - gender stability - self: stable in the future, not stable in the past - third-party: less stable — flexible in thinking for others - gender constancy: at age 3-5: more likely to see gender as stable across context

Answer 34

repeated card