psych 315 - M2

Question 1

History of Intelligence Testing

Answer 1

• Alfred Binet
  
  • public education just started – wanted to identify students who needed more support
  • wanted to find children who needed extra support (did not focus on the “why”)
• Louis Terman
  
  • brought intelligence testing from France to North America
  • started seeing intelligence as heritable (from genetics)
  • adapted into Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

Question 2

Common IQ Tests

Answer 2

• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
  
  • mean score of 100
  • 1 general score from intelligence quotient
  • different questions for different ages
  • issue: some questions needed to know certian facts
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
  
  • had general score and 5 composite scores
  • wanted a test for adults as well
  • wanted test that was less linguistic-based and school-based (Binet focused too much on language, verbal abilities and facts from formal schooling

Question 3

Different Theories of Intelligence

Answer 3

• General Intelligence: intelligence is one underlying ability – can be split into sub-abilities but contribute overall to your general intelligence
  
  • crystallized intelligence: factual knowledge
  • fluid intelligence: ability to think on the spot and solve problems
• Sternberg’s Theory of Successful Intelligence
  
  • analytical intelligence: analyze and solve problems
  • practical intelligence: street-smart
  • creative intelligence: divergent thinking (# of solutions)
• Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
  
  • 7-9 types of intelligences
  • people have different strengths – and we should foster different strengths
  • not fully supported (difficult to test)

Question 4

Why are there individual differences in IQ?

Answer 4

• gene environment correlations: our genes help us create environments that fit our predispositions
  
  • passive effect: child and parent’s shared tendency leads to environment
  • evocative effects: child’s genetic tendency cause them to evoke certain reactions from their environment
  • active effects: child’s genetic tendency cause them to actively select environments
• genetics
  
  • monozygotic twins have similar intelligence levels
  • genes get stronger as we get older due to gene environment correlations
• environment
  
  • school: more schooling = higher IQ scores
    
    • IQ scores similar with grade-peers, not age-peers
  • family environment: higher IQ for parents who provide stimulating environment / emotional responses / verbal and language communication / encouragement
  • socioeconomic status: higher SES = higher IQ
    
    • not static: moves with your SES
  • time period: i.e. Flynn Effect

Question 5

is IQ testing helpful or dangerous?

Answer 5

• (+) predictor for job performance, health, attitudes
• (+) tool for research and policy decisions
• (-) eugenics background caused from IQ testing
• (-) IQ may not actually measure intelligence: sensitive to motivation, coaching / cultural biases

Question 6

Group Differences in IQ scores

Answer 6

• girls do better in verbal (closer to average)
• boys do better in spatial / math (closer to extreme edges)
• white individuals score higher than black individuals
• why?
  
  • culturally-biased tests
  • social differences (different experiences, background, socioeconomic)
  • stereotype threat

Question 7

Stereotype Threat

Answer 7

• a psychological burden caused by the concern that one’s performance might confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group
• awareness of negative beliefs > stress response + negative thoughts (need self-regulation) + monitoring performance > impaired performance
• cognitive load — theres only so much you can focus on

Question 8

Picho & Schmader (2018)

Answer 8

• comparing teenager expectations on stereotypes + your own beliefs on those stereotypes
• result: own endorsement does not matter, but researcher’s expectations on whether your demographic would do well or not matters

Question 9

Mindsets about Intelligence

Answer 9

• fixed mindset (= entity theory): intelligence and talent are fixed at birth
• growth mindset (= incremental theory): intelligence and talent can go up or down
  
  • predicts response to challenges and failures: more resistant, will continue trying, will choose challenging courses
  • predict academic outcomes: tend to do better academically
• formed through individual differences, but can be induced
  
  • praise: you’re so good v you’re working so hard
  • interventions: giving feedback

Question 10

How do beliefs about intelligence impact academic achievement?

Answer 10

• children with growth mindset have better academic performance
• children from high SES: more resources → better performance
• children from low SES: less likely to have growth mindset
  
  • BUT, when children low income families have growth mindset
    → good performance are even more pronounced

Question 11

Claro, Paunesku, & Dweck’s (2016)

Answer 11

• growth mindset tampers the effects of poverty on academic achievement
• academic achievement affected by socioeconomic background and psychological factors (= beliefs about ability)
• strong predictor of achievement: family income, growth mindset
• students from low-income are less likely to have growth mindset
  
  • but those that do: acts as buffer on effects of poverty
• done on all 10th graders in Chile through national exam
• students with growth mindset outperform their peers at each family level

Question 12

What does reading require?

Answer 12

• visual detection: detect symbols
• understanding the language
• symbolic understanding: understand word represents something else
• phonological recoding: symbol-sound correspondence
• visual-based retrieval: whole-word recognition

Question 13

What does writing require?

Answer 13

• visual detection: detect symbols
• understanding the language
• symbolic understanding: understand word represents something else
• phonological recoding: symbol-sound correspondence
• visual-based retrieval: whole-word recognition
• fine motor skills
• organizing narrative

Question 14

Stages of reading acquisition

Answer 14

• stage 0: pre-reading
  
  • [0-3] recognize and pretend to read books
  • [3-4] know that letters have names (may know some), recognize print in environment (i.e. “stop” sign) interest in reading books
  • [5] recognize upper and lowercase letters
    
    • phonological awareness: ability to recognize and analyze sound structure of spoken words
      (i.e. what rhymes, what words start with same letter)
• stage 1: grade 1-2
  
  • alphabetic principle: one letter corresponds to a sound (use for phonological recoding)
• stage 2: grade 2-3
  
  • gains reading fluency — faster and more efficient
• stage 3+: grade 4
  
  • more complex reading abilities
  • reading to learn (not learning to read anymore)

Question 15

Teaching children how to read

Answer 15

• informal: reading to children
• formal:
  
  • phonics / reading for decoding
    
    • if only based on context, will not have skills to figure out new words in new context
  • whole-language instruction
    
    • expose child to interesting stories, posters, books > will acquire reading from context

Question 16

Brain and Reading

Answer 16

• visual word-form area: as we learn to read, this area starts to specialize and activate towards written words
  
  • forms connections with auditory and visual brain system
• neuronal recycling hypothesis: as we acquire written language → changes how brain responds to other things
  
  • only so much space in your brain — language takes over what would be happening
  • responds less to faces and objects, but now responds more to written words

Question 17

Dyslexia

Answer 17

• dyslexia: reading ability is lower than expected based on IQ
• old theory: believed to be caused by visual impairment
• current causes:
  
  • genetics
  • phonological deficits
  • influence of language — more for languages with deep orthographies

Question 18

Contrasting social development theories

Answer 18

• Focus of stage
  
  • F: each stage has specific zone in body with strongest urge
  • E: each stage has central conflict to be resolved
• External contexts
  
  • F: we are all born with powerful urges
  • E: social environment interacts to shape development
  • B: must take into account context of environment
• Difference in stages
  
  • F: stages
  • E: stages
  • B: continuous
• Effect of interactions
  
  • F: early interactions set up later development
  • E: how we resolve conflict impact how we develop, and goes into adulthood
  • B: development occurs within complex system of relationships

Question 19

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Answer 19

• we are all born with powerful urges
  
  • id: unconscious sexual and aggressive urges that drives us to behave in certain ways (part of personality)
  • ego: works to balance drive v societal expectations
  • superego: biological drives in conflict with reality and societal expectations (reality and morality aspect of personality)
• how we resolve conflict between id, superego and ego will have continued influence in later development
• stages:
  
  • each stage has specific zone in body with strongest urge
  • child has to learn to gratify urges while balancing reality and morality
  • not balancing it will have continual impact in development

Question 20

Stages of Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Answer 20

• [0-18mo] Oral
  
  • id comes in as pleasure principle
  • at end of stage, ego comes in as reality principle
• [18mo-3] Anal
• [3-6] Phallic
  
  • superego comes in as morality principle
    becomes more sensitive to morality of society (right v wrong)
• [6-12] Latency
  
  • drives are fairly dormant
• [12+] Genital

Question 21

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Answer 21

• focused on Freud’s ego
  
  • argues it does more than just balance the id and superego
  • social environmental factors interact with ego to shape development to deal with expectations from society
  • ego continues to have conflicts beyond childhood - development goes beyond childhood into adulthood
• stages of development
  
  • at each stage, a central conflict has to be resolved
  • how we resolve the conflict impacts how we develop

Question 22

Stages of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Answer 22

• [infancy, 0-1] trust v mistrust: can i trust the world?
  
  • trust: parent will come help when needed
  • mistrust: not getting consistency / comfort needed → will impact relationships throughout development
• [toddlerhood, 1-3.5] autonomy v shame/doubt: can i control my behaviours in the way society expects?
  
  • i.e potty training
• [early childhood, 4-6] initiative v guilt: can i be independent from my parents?
  
  • if parents give space: will grow to be independent
  • if parents too involved: may develop guilt and not feel independent over behaviours
• [middle childhood, 6-puberty] industry v inferiority: can i master skills i need to adapt?
  
  • mostly school-based: reading, counting, etc
• [adolescence] identity v role confusion: who am i?
  
  • figuring out how to define yourself
• [young adult] intimacy v isolation: can I fully give myself to someone else?
  
  • learn about intimate friendships and romantic relationships
• [middle age] generativity v stagnation: what can i offer generations to follow?
  
  • tied to parenting / future generations
  • whether your work has meaning to future generations
• [old age] integrity v despair: have I found contentment and satisfaction?

Question 23

Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model

Answer 23

• takes into account context: context impacts all interactions and relate with each other
• development occurs within a complex system of relationships
• Model:
  
  • the child: comes with biologically-based dispositions that actively influence development
  • microsystem: immediate environment
    (i.e. family, daycare, neighborhood)
  • mesosystem: connection between aspects of microsystem
    (i.e. relationship between mom and daycare
  • exosystem: indirect environments
    (i.e. mom’s stressful job — indirectly affects the child)
  • macrosystem: cultural values, laws, customs, resources
  • chronosystem: time period and child’s age

Question 24

Freud’s Legacy

Answer 24

• (+) first to realize importance of early experiences
• (+) importance of early parent-child relationships
• (+) unconscious motivations: we behave in ways we don’t know why
• (+) led to development of other theories of development
• (-) most ideas not supported by current research: ideas are too vague to test
• (-) focused on adult men and on sexuality (not huge role on children)
• (-) wrote findings while on cocaine

Question 25

Erikson’s Legacy

Answer 25

• (+) helps think about major themes in different stages in development
• (+) highlights importance of identity in development
• (+) highlights lifespan development up: does not end, but goes to adulthood
• (-) specifics may not hold through: ideas are vague and difficult to test

Question 26

Bronfenbrenner’s Legacy

Answer 26

• (+) thinks about broad role of context beyond immediate environment
• (+) thinks about influence of policies

Question 27

Development of self-concept

Answer 27

• [0-2] infancy
  
  • has early implicit awareness
  • sees self as a separate entity and an active causal agent
    
    • i.e. rooting reflex: turn head if you stroke cheek
    • i.e. stare longer at videos of themselves
  • [~18mo] can pass rouge test — sees themselves as a unique being
  • [~2] recognize self in pictures, label self using name/pronouns, use category label for self (”i’m a boy”)
• [3-6] early childhood: can describe themselves
  
  • focuses on concrete, observable features (”my room is pink”)
  • unrealistically positive (”i’m really strong”)
• [6-12] middle childhood
  
  • begins to refer to global characteristics: describes you across situations, not just within one context
    (i.e. “i am nice”) – but still fairly concrete
  • more realistic and balanced — linked to actual competencies
  • increased social comparisons
• adolescence
  
  • nuanced view of self —sense of complexity (”i’m shy but also outgoing”)
  • understand role of situations, context and perspectives — we can be different in different contexts
  • more abstract and psychological (”i’m sensitive”)
  • begin to think about future and possible selves
  • begin to develop a coherent / integrated self
  • better understanding of self across time and place
  • we can be different in different contexts
  • characteristics:
    
    • false self behaviour: intentionally presents false impression to others (i.e. pretend to be cool)
    • personal fable: belief that our own experiences are unique and novel
    • imaginary audience: belief that everyone is focused on you

Question 28

Describe research on personality developments in adolescence

Answer 28

• study personality using the five-factor model: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience
• influenced by genetics and environments — environment becomes somewhat more important as people age
  
  • can inherit temperamental predispositions
  • predispositions may harden and become organized in response to the environment
• many core personality traits are stable between childhood—adolescence, and adolescence—young adult
  
  • many popular stereotypes about adolescence being a time of “rebirth”
  • but research does not show that there is an upheaval of personality

Question 29

Developmental changes in self-esteem

Answer 29

• can start measuring at age 8
  
  • difficult to measure in early childhood
  • becomes more differentiated with development
• self-esteem starts high → declines throughout childhood → has mixed findings during adolescence

Question 30

Influences of self-concept

Answer 30

• cognitive development:
  
  • as our ability to think becomes more abstract, the way we see ourselves gets more complex as well
  • i.e. lose egocentrism = takes into account others’ feedback and is less biased
• parents:
  
  • warm and supportive: child tends to have more positive self concepts
  • family narrative: type of stories that families tell about child’s life (impactful, as we don’t have clear memory of own childhood)
• peers (how they evaluate us)
• culture:
  
  • different cultures talk about self and use descriptors differently
    
    • individualistic: focus on self and success → internal traits (”i am wonderful and a very smart person. i’m a helpful and cooperative girl”)
    • collectivistic: focus on role and success within group → relational and situational traits (”i’m my mom and dad’s child. i’m a hard-working child”)
• Wang (2004)
  
  • Euro-American: use more private and abstract descriptors
  • Chinese: use more collective, public and specific descriptors

Question 31

Influences of self-esteem

Answer 31

• individual differences
• gender: males have higher self-esteem than females
  (more pronounced in industrialized societies
• race: black > white > indigenous > asian
• approval of others: parents, peers, teachers, etc
• societal standards: i.e media, attractiveness, etc
  
  • physical attractiveness very strongly tied
• culture: different cultures have different meanings of self-esteem
  
  • individual: focus on individual achievement
  • collective: focus on achievements and status within group
    
    • emphasizes humbleness — thinking positively about self is not ideal

Question 32

Effect of self-esteem

Answer 32

• high self-esteem → better outcomes (school, well-being)
• low self-esteem → emotional and behavioural problems
• self-esteem movement: programs designed to boost self-esteem to boost academic performance
  
  • believed that self-esteem caused academic success
  • but program was not effective
    
    • maybe academic success predicts self-esteem, and so this program won’t work
    • maybe unearned positive enforcement does not work (have to be based in reality)

Question 33

Erikson on identity development

Answer 33

• adolescence is a time of crisis of identity v role confusion (like putting together a puzzle)
• current theorists see it more as a process instead of a crisis
• psychosocial moratorium: time where individuals are free from excessive obligations and can experiment with different roles
  
  • classic example: university
  • not necessary for development, but would be easier with it

Question 34

4 Identity States

Answer 34

• identity diffusion: no exploration, no commitment
  
  • very common in start of adolescence
  • only problematic if it continues for a long time
    
    • associated with high levels of behavioural and emotional problems
    • associated with difficulties with relationships
    • more likely to report low levels of parental warmth and support
• identity foreclosure: no exploration, has commitment
  
  • also very common in start of adolescence
    
    • correlated with low anxiety and general life satisfaction
    • associated with higher levels of prejudice
    • associated with need for social approval and lower sense of autonomy
    • more common with controlling or overly-protective parents
• moratorium: has exploration, no commitment
  
  • next most common — usually ages 17-19
  • seen as fairly positive state, but with some links to anxiety and conflict with authority
  • problematic if it continues for a long time
    
    • extended moratorium without commitment = anxiety
    • overly-thinking about who you are and how to act = rumination
• identity achievement: has exploration, has commitment
  
  • associated with positive outcomes — high achievement, maturity, intimacy
  • agency: feels control and responsibility for one’s own actions

Question 35

Ethnic Definitions

Answer 35

• ethnic-racial identification: how someone labels their race
  
  • [3-5] developed in childhood, seen in young children
• ethnic racial identity: a person’s thoughts and feelings about their race and ethnicity, and the process of developing those thoughts and feelings
  
  • [adolescence] questions of identity heightened

Question 36

Common pattern of ERI development

Answer 36

• unexamined ethnic identity → exploration → resolution
  [can move back and forth between exploration and resolution]
  
  • unexamined ethnic identity: childhood
    
    • have identification, but no deeper connotations about it
  • exploration: early adolescence
    
    • usually triggered by an experience or event
      → realization of “difference”
  • resolution
    
    • feel confidence about racial identity
      
      • how we feel about race is now incorporated in who we are

Question 37

Different components of ERI

Answer 37

• affirmation (= private regard): how good/bad a person feels about being part of their ethnic / racial group
  
  • feel positive = protective factor
    → do better in emotional and mental health domains
    
    • but will be affected by other components of ERI
• public regard: how positively a person believes other people view their ethnic/racial group
• centrality: how important a person’s ethnic/racial group is to their identity
  
  • too much centrality can also be negative → more impacted by experiences of discrimination
• salience: how important a person feels their ethnic/racial group is to a particular situation

Question 38

Different Statuses of ERI with minority individuals

Answer 38

• assimilated: identify with majority, don’t identify with minority
  
  • a lot of emphasis on assimilation historically
  • barriers (discrimination, micro-aggressions) lead to marginalize
• bicultural: identify with majority, identify with minority
  
  • associated with positive outcomes
  • in some cases, can be negative: if history is negative, identification wth majority culture can be negative
• marginalized: don’t identify with majority, don’t identify with minority
• separated: don’t identify with majority, identify with minority
  
  • can be more ideal for some individuals

Question 39

ERI and outcomes

Answer 39

• positive ERI leads to:
  
  • lower levels of depressive symptoms
  • higher self-esteem
  • positive academic outcomes
  • protection in the face of discrimination (acts as buffer)

Question 40

Influences of ERI

Answer 40

• ethnic racial socialization: where children are taught about race — typically by parents
  
  • more common in marginalized groups
  • common themes:
    
    • importance of one’s culture
    • dealing with racism
    • succeeding in mainstream society
• school: children spend more and more time at school as they get older
  
  • context of school: diversity, segregation
    
    • more diversity = more positive ERI
    • less segregation = more positive ERI
  • openness: seeing race as “taboo” v openly discussing it
  • affinity groups of same race: opportunities to discuss shared experiences
  • formal curriculum: race as part of the curriculum
    
    • i.e. the identity project: intervention to boost ERI exploration
    • results: more ERI exploration → predicts ERI resolution
      
      • one year later: higher self esteem, lower depressive symptoms, higher grades

Question 41

Umaña-Taylor et al.’s (2018)

Answer 41

• identity project: promoting adolescent’s ERI exploration and resolution (8-week curriculum)
• high levels of exploration predicts increase in resolution
• use ethnic identity scale brief to measure ERI at T1, T2, T3
• still many factors to consider: affect on minority v majority, classroom composition, selection bias in choosing course

Question 42

Gender Definitions

Answer 42

• sex assigned at birth: based on objectively measurable biological organs, hormones, chromosomes
• gender / gender identity: a person’s sense of self as gendered
  
  • more psychological sense of self
  • how you identify, how you feel
  • independent from sex assigned at birth — does not have to match
• gender expression: how a person demonstrates their gender
  
  • how we enact gender: masculine / feminine / androgynous
  • independent from gender identity — does not have to match
• gender role: societal expectations of gendered behaviour / thought / trait
  
  • should have different interests, behaviours, appearance
  • our expectations on gender are pretty similar across cultures
    
    • boys: aggressive, competitive, assertive, risky, independent, athletic
    • girls: affectionate, gentle, loves children, compassionate, understanding

Question 43

Gender across development: infancy / toddlerhood

Answer 43

• [3 mo] can discriminate between male and female, but focus on superficial cues
  
  • will struggle if you remove hair from females / add hair to males
• [8 mo] look longer at own-gender stereotyped toys
• [2 yrs] look longer at gender-inconsistent pictures
  (i.e. the male putting on make-up)

Question 44

Gender across development: childhood

Answer 44

• changes in cognitive development shifts thinking about gender > Lawrence Kohlberg’s Theory
  
  • [2-2.5] gender identity
    
    • children can label their own gender and consistently identify their own gender
  • [3-4] gender stability
    
    • start to understand gender as stable across time
  • [5-7] gender constancy / consistency
    
    • start to understand gender is constant
      
      • across situations
      • across appearances
      • across changes of outward factors
• shift from gender essentialism to understanding gender as socially-influenced
  
  • [4-5] sees gender as essentialist
    → will act in gender-stereotyped ways regardless of upbringing
  • [9] sees gender as socially-influenced
  • children all across development will see gender as biological essentialist
• knowledge of gender stereotypes
  
  • goes from superficially based to deeper characteristics
    (i.e. toys, clothes → assertive v shy)
    
    • [5-7] peak of rigidity of stereotypes

Question 45

Gender across development: adolescence

Answer 45

• gender-role intensification: heightened concern about adhering to traditional gender roles
  
  • due to puberty — changes in body (more gender differences), changes in sexual attraction
• gender-role flexibility: allowing for traditional gender role conventions to be transcended
• paradox?
  
  • gender-role intensification: more in terms of behaviour
    (need to fit into gender role → concerned about how to behave)
    
    • more common in early / middle adolescence
  • gender-role flexibility: more in terms of beliefs
    (focused on acceptance and letting others be flexible)
    
    • more common in later adolescence

Question 46

Gender Differences - Physical

Answer 46

• conception
  
  • [prenatal] chromosomes
  • [1-2 mo gestation] physiological differences
  • [2.5-3.5 mo gestation] external genitals emerge
• infancy and childhood: only few physical differences and skills (aside from genitalia)
• puberty: many changes occur → capability of sexual reproduction
  
  • increase in physical growth (more pronounced in boys)
  • primary and secondary sex characteristics
  • increased sex-linked differences
    
    • boys have greater physical speed and strength

Question 47

Gender Differences - Cognitive

Answer 47

• IQ tests
  
  • girls are slightly better at verbal tasks
  • boys are slightly better at spatial tasks
• academic performance
  
  • girls have slightly better grades / performance→ but there is a lot of variability depending on age and subject
• beliefs / interests
  
  • actual differences are really small, but differences in beliefs tend to be much bigger
    
    • boys think they’re better at math — difference goes away with age
    • girls think they’re better in language arts — difference increases with age

Question 48

Gender Differences - Emotions

Answer 48

• girls express more happiness and sadness
• boys express more anger
• girls are better at expressing, decoding and managing emotions
• mental health → girls more likely to experience depression, low self-esteem

Question 49

Gender Differences - Social Interactions

Answer 49

• girls more likely to emphasize intimacy and support
• boys more likely to emphasize power and dominance
• girls more likely to engage in indirect aggression
• boys more likely to engage in direct aggression

Question 50

Influence on gender development - Biological

Answer 50

• traits that are adaptive for human survival would continue to be selected
  
  • i.e. maternal care is useful for infant survival
    → girls more likely to play collaboratively / caring way
  • issue: difficult to test — more of a hypothesis
• role of hormones: differences in androgen and estrogen
  
  • testosterone: higher in males, estrogen: higher in females
  • leads to gender differences
    
    • i.e. congenital adrenal hyperplasia: genetic female (XX) with high androgen → more likely to show traditionally male behaviour
  • 2 types of influences:
    
    • organizational influence: hormones influence development of characteristics
    • activational influence: changes in hormone levels stimulate changes in neural activation / behaviour
      
      • changes in level of hormones may lead to differences in behaviour / interests
        
        • more seen in adolescents with puberty (big changes in hormone levels)
        • i.e. males - higher androgen = more interest in sexual activity and aggression
• difference in brain structure and function
  
  • small difference in adults, not much evidence in children

Question 51

Influence on gender development - Social Cultural

Answer 51

• observation — model gender-typed behaviour
• reinforcement — i.e. boys told not to cry
• Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
  
  • i.e. microsystem: parent expectations, teachers, influence of peers
  • i.e. exosystem: fashion industry

Question 52

Influence on gender development - Cognitive

Answer 52

• Kohlberg’s Cognitive Development Theory: changes in thinking about gender → changes adherence to gender-typed behaviour
  
  • gender stability = increased rigidity
  • gender constancy = increased flexibility
• gender schema theory
  
  • our schema on gender guide our behaviour
  • we remember things that fit into gender schema better
    (i.e. remember story better when its about male firefighter)
  • schema are active constructions that change over time
    
    • based on stereotypes on gender
    • based on personal experiences (that don’t hold true to cultural expectations)

Question 53

Gender Identity

Answer 53

• sense of self as gendered that is an internal / psychological experience
  
  • transgender: one’s gender identity/expression differs from assigned sex/gender
  • cisgender: gender identity matches assigned sex/gender
  • genderqueer: individual rejects the binary categorization of gender
  • agender / gender-neutral: individual does not identify as any gender

Question 54

Transgender v Cis Youth

Answer 54

• gender development appears similar for trans and cis youth, but trans youth and their siblings are more willing to view gender as flexible
• similarities
  
  • gender development: implicit gender identity, gender preferences, gender-typed behaviour, gender stereotyping
  • gender essentialism: shown at at a young age
• differences:
  
  • gender stability:
    
    • self-stability: gender as stable in the future, gender as unstable in the past
    • third-party-stability: think of gender as less stable (more flexible when thinking for third party)
  • gender constancy: slightly more likely to view gender as stable across contexts at age 3-5

Question 55

Fast & Olson’s (2016)

Answer 55

• 3-5: socially-transitioned trans do not diff with cis on expressed gender
• but, less likely to believe that
  
  • gender at birth matches current birth
  • other people’s gender is stable (+ their siblings too)

Question 56

Describe research on mental health and adjustment for trans and non-binary youth

Answer 56

• see increased risk of mental health challenges
• socially-transitioned trans youth may have better mental health outcomes than trans youth who may not be socially transitioned
  
  • socially transitioned sample is younger and higher income
  • socially transitioned sample may be better supported by family / environment

Question 57

Consider what research on transgender children implies for theories/influences on gender development

Answer 57

• gender development appears similar in trans and cis youth
  
  • implicit gender identity → similar to cis: responds quickly to gender-positive
  • gender preference
  • gender-typed behaviour
  • gender stereotyping
  → shows that biological influences and early socialization influences cannot fully explain gender development!→ even biology and socialization can still result in a different gender identity
• trans youth (+ their siblings) may be more willing to view gender as flexible
  
  • shows experiences with gender do appear to impact how children think about gender
  • gender stability
    
    • self: stable in the future, not stable in the past
    • third-party: less stable — flexible in thinking for others
  • gender constancy: at age 3-5: more likely to see gender as stable across context

Question 58

Consider what research on transgender children implies for theories/influences on gender development

Answer 58

repeated card