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term 4 > psych 315 - M1 > Flashcards

psych 315 - M1 Flashcards

1
Q

Stages of Development

A
  • Infancy (0-3)
  • Early Childhood (3-6)
  • Middle Childhood (6-11)
  • Adolescence (11-19)
  • Early Adulthood (20-25)
  • Adulthood (25+)
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2
Q

Developmental Psychology - and why we study it

A
  • developmental psychology: the study of change and stability throughout the lifespan
  • provides a framework for understanding important phenomena
  • raises crucial questions about human nature
  • leads to a better understanding of children
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3
Q

Domains of development

A
  • Physical
    Social and emotional
  • Cognitive
  • separate, but still interconnected
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4
Q

Major Themes in Development

A
  • Nature v Nurture
  • Developmental Changes
    - continuous v discontinuous
    - mechanisms: biological, experiences, sensitive periods
  • Individual differences and context – different choices continue to differentiate us
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5
Q

Ways to gather data

A
  • Naturalistic observation
  • Systematic observation
  • Self / Other Report
  • Physiological Measures
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6
Q

What is naturalistic observation?

A
  • observing behaviour in a natural setting
    • time sampling: record all behaviours in a pre-determined time period
    • event sampling: record behaviour every time behaviour of interest happens
  • very crucial to have operationalized concepts
  • gets real world behaviour
  • a lot is happening, and is difficult to control
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7
Q

What is systematic observation?

A
  • researcher sets up the situation to evoke behaviour
  • great for unusual behaviours
  • children may be shy or unwilling to engage
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8
Q

What is self / other report?

A
  • surveys, interviews, tests, etc
  • great insight for inner experiences
  • children may not be able to fill out questions
    • memory difficulties
    • easily influenced
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9
Q

What is physiological measures?

A
  • relationship with physiological measures
  • does not require language / behaviour
  • can be frightening
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10
Q

Correlational v Experimental Design

A
  • relationship v cause-effect
  • measure as it is v manipulate
  • strong-weak, pos-neg v causal
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11
Q

What is a longitudinal design?

A

Measures the same participants across time at different ages

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12
Q

What is a cross-sectional design?

A

Measures different participants at the same time at different ages

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13
Q

What is a sequential design?

A

Measures different participants across time at different ages

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14
Q

What is a microgenetic design?

A

Measures same participants in a short period of closely-spaced sessions

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15
Q

Challenges in doing research with children

A
  • ethical issues
  • cooperation
  • selection issues (may not be representative)
  • measurement equivalency (variables look different at differing ages)
  • cause of change (by age or another variable?)
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16
Q

Piaget’s Central Tenets

A
  • children are mentally active from birth
  • children are constructivists: scientists who create their own learning with intrinsic motivation
  • sources of continuity: assimilation, accommodation, equilibrium
  • sources of discontinuity: each stage has accomplishments and gaps
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17
Q

Piaget’s Assimilation and Accommodation

A
  • understanding of the world is organized by schemas
  • assimilation: new information is viewed through existing schema
  • accommodation: schema is adapted to accommodate for new information that did not fit
  • equilibration: to balance assimilation and accommodation to create a stable understanding
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18
Q

What are Piaget’s stages?

A
  • Sensorimotor stage: 0-2 years
  • Pre-operational stage: 2-7 years
  • Concrete operational stage: 7-12 years
  • Formal operational stage: 12+
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19
Q

What is the Sensorimotor Stage

A
  • learning about the world through senses and motor capabilities
  • (+) adapting to the environment
    • (18-24mo) form enduring mental representations
    • deferred imitation: repetition of people hours or days after
  • (+) object permanence
    • [8-12mo] A-not-B error: search in A even after seeing it hidden in B
    • [12+ mo] search for object in current location at 12+ months
  • (-) ability to represent the world mentally
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20
Q

What is the Pre-operational Stage?

A
  • (+) Symbolic representation: pretend play, language, drawing
  • (-) operations: mental representation of logical rules (i.e. mental math)
  • (-) conservation
  • (-) egocentricism
  • (-) classification
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21
Q

What is the Concrete Operational Stage?

A
  • (+) mental logic about concrete things
  • (+) conservation: understand that physical properties do not change despite changes in form or appearance
    • centration: focus on one aspect (i.e. height)
    • irreversibility: inability to mentally reserve directions (cut chocolate = have more)
  • (+) egocentricism: to realize other people’s viewpoints
  • (+) classification: understanding hierarchies and categories
    • are there more flowers or more red flowers?
  • (-) reason about abstracts or hypotheticals
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22
Q

What is the Formal Operational Stage?

A
  • Can reason about abstracts and hypotheticals
  • Can logically examine evidence and test hypothesis
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23
Q

Piaget’s Legacy

A
  • his study of cognitive development inspired others, start of modern research
  • accurate descriptions of child’s behaviours
  • idea of ‘natural limits’ at a given age
  • children as ‘scientists’
  • many applications to education
24
Q

Piaget’s Weaknesses

A
  • does not specify mechanisms: what leads child to think that way / shift in thinking
  • overemphasis on clear-cut stages
  • underestimates influences of others: only focus on child’s efforts
  • may not accurately describe the child’s understanding (tests were difficult)
25
Q

Piaget v Vygotsky

A
  • self-discover v assisted discovery
  • constructivist theory v co-constructivist theory
  • discontinuous v continuous change
  • universal v culturally situated
  • language and thought are unrelated v language is key
26
Q

Piaget’s application in education

A
  • learning should be child-led (i.e. different stations, create own experiment)
  • children learn best by interacting with environment - child as scientists
27
Q

Vygotsky’s application in education

A
  • learning through social collaboration
    - zone of proximal development: difficult task is possible with help of skilled other
    - scaffolding: teachers adjust level of support to fit needs (not giving more than needed)
    - behaviour is controlled by other people’s statements -> private speech -> internalized speech
  • learn through reciprocal or collaborative learning (teaching one another - jigsaw)
28
Q

Define theory of mind

A

The ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others

29
Q

3 components of theory of mind

A
  • understand that others have mental states, and these states guide behaviour
  • understand that others’ states can differ from your own
  • understand that mental states can be accurate or inaccurate to reality, but can still guide behaviour
30
Q

Classic tests to measure theory of mind

A
  • False belief tasks: Sally-Anne task, Smarties Task
  • 3-4 year olds will fail and answer according to reality
  • 4-5 year olds will pass: understand perspective-taking, misrepresentation, diverging representations
31
Q

Does theory of mind develop earlier that evident, and why is it not evident?

A
  • tasks may be too hard: store info, require language, hypothetical concept, inhibition component
  • age 2: can implicitly understand that people have different mental states and desires
    - can show through action (understand implicitly), but cannot explicitly explain
32
Q

Different theory of mind theories

A
  • theory theory: changes in thinking occurs through experience, and updates the theory
  • simulation theory: nurture, experience-based
  • modular theory: brain maturation, nature-based
  • other skills develop which creates theory of mind (language, executive functions)
33
Q

Theory of mind and atypical development

A
  • autism: severely delayed, some say is the primary cause of autism, leads back to modular theory
  • deaf children with hearing parents: lack native sign language, causes delays
34
Q

Understanding of race across development

A
  • infant: race is a perpetual, outward category with no deeper connotations (prefers familiar face)
  • 3-4 years: race is a stable characteristic (can categorize, but skin-tone based)
  • 10+ years: race is a stable and informative feature of identity
    • essentialism: membership results in inherent essence that makes them behave in certain ways
    • essentialism develops faster for children from
      • marginalized groups
      • less exposed to other ethnicities
      • has salience of other ethnicities
35
Q

Types of attitudes towards race

A
  • explicit: an attitude a person consciously expresses and can report
  • implicit: attitudes that influence a person’s feelings or beliefs at an unconscious level
36
Q

Effect of explicit attitudes

A
  • dominant group: in-group positivity + out-group negativity (sees decline as you grow older - socialization, less egocentric, social desirability)
  • marginalized groups: in-group negativity, out-group positivity (as adults, see increase for in-group preference) `
37
Q

Effect of implicit attitudes

A
  • dominant groups: show in-group bias in IAT
  • marginalized groups: no effect
  • preferences for high-status over low-status emerge early in childhood, and remain stable – will be stronger for homogenous communities
38
Q

How is intergroup bias formed in development

A
  • formed through
    • [1] in-group bias
    • [2] social norms
  • dominant groups: both factors build on each other
  • marginalized groups: factors counteract each other
39
Q

Strategies to reduce implicit bias

A
  • personal contact with out-group members
  • encounter positive examples of out-group members
40
Q

Gonzalez et al (2017)’s paper

A

whether children’s implicit racial attitudes can be reduced, and whether there are developmental differences in capacity to reduce it
- done by showing counter-stereotypical exemplars
- result: can reduce implicit racial bias for older children (10), but not younger (7)
- older children have more cognitive flexibility
- younger children may not spontaneously categorize by race, and often prioritize other categories over race

41
Q

Nature v Nurture in language

A
  • Nature: language is innately human – acquired everywhere, can learn complex language rapidly without much training
  • Nurture: learning requires experience and exposure, and has a sensitive critical period
42
Q

Aspects of communicative competence?

A
  • Private speech
  • Conversations
  • Language Adaptation
43
Q

Private speech

A
  • helps drive thinking – to better understand and process information
  • helps with self-regulation and planning (used more often in difficult tasks)
  • process: speech from others -> private speech -> inner speech
44
Q

Conversations

A
  • turn-taking: shows up early, already quite good at age 2
  • taking related turns: poor in early childhood (egocentricism), steadily improves
  • repairing miscommunication:
    • 1-3 year olds will repeat failed communication
    • 3-5 year olds are more likely to repair failed communication
  • giving and responding to feedback: 3-5 year olds inconsistent in asking for clarification
45
Q

Language adaptation

A
  • age 4: can already change language depending on individual / situation (requires theory of mind)
  • done through registers (style of language - marker of identity) and dialects (forms of language - tied to our identity)
  • dialect example: African American English / Black English
46
Q

How to acquire communicative competence

A
  • requests: comprehension of indirect requests and production of requests
  • different requests can have the same purpose
  • should take into account context to vary requests used
47
Q

Influences of development on communicative competence

A
  • gender: feminine v masculine registers
    • girls more collaborative and supportive, boys more controlling and unmitigated
    • in role play: father more straightforward, mother more polite and indirect
    • but overall, language of boys and girls are more similar than different
  • family influence: learn structure from early interactions
    - indirect instructions: challenge child to think cognitively
    - some members can act as “bridges” to society to pressure child to communicate more clearly to be understood
  • schools and peer influence: opportunities for interaction with teachers as models, and peers (similar to family bridges)
48
Q

Bilinguals

A
  • simultaneous / crib bilinguals: learn 2 languages from birth
  • sequential bilinguals: learn 1 first
  • 2-4 year olds: can code-switch or code-mix based on partner
  • better at detecting conversational violations from a younger age
49
Q

Advantage of being bilingual

A
  • better in perspective-taking
  • executive functions: better at task-switching
  • metalinguistic abilities: ability to think about language
  • NOT associated with other cognitive skills (i.e. IQ)
50
Q

Sign language as shaped by children

A
  • Homesign: created by deaf children with hearing parents
  • Nicaraguan sign language: developed own language after not receiving the education – younger children from cohort 2 added complexity to language through spacial modulation
51
Q

Gesture as a window into thoughts

A
  • Gestures start early at 10 months old (i.e. pointing)
  • Gestures can predict language ability
    - # of gestures = # of vocab
    - use of gestures + words = predicts complex sentences
52
Q

How gestures influence a child’s cognitive development

A
  • convey knowledge and help with communication
  • helps lighten the load for difficult tasks
  • abstract gestures help generalize knowledge and apply them
  • gesture-speech mismatch: child is on the verge of learning – seen in children more receptive and will benefit from learning
53
Q

Novack et al (2014)’s paper

A
  • Does gesturing promote learning because it is a physical action, or is it because it represents an abstract idea?
  • Action v concrete gesture v abstract gesture
  • actions result in relatively shallow understanding (= trained problems)
  • gestures result in deeper, more flexible learning
    • concrete gesture: intermediate understanding (= near transfer problems)
    • abstract gesture: facilitates generalization (= far transfer problems)
54
Q

Influences on Theory of Mind

A
  • Individual differences
    - # of siblings (act as models, motivated to progress faster, observe, get rid of some hypotheticals)
    - pretend play (simulation theory)
    - parenting (talking about mental states, explaining)
  • Language
    - doing better at language tasks = doing better at theory of mind tasks
    - bilingual children are better in tasks (executive function, brain maturation, learning 2 perspectives)
  • Executive function
  • Autism
55
Q

Vygotsky

A
  • zone of proximal development: range of tasks are too difficult to do on your own, but possible with the help of a skilled other
  • mechanisms to learn through social collaboration
    • [1] scaffolding: teachers ‘adjust’ level of support to fit learner’s needs
      • verbal instruction: Turkey > US > Guatemala > India
      • gestures: Guatemala > Turkey > India > US
      • gazes or touches: India and Guatemala
    • [2] language: most important tool – private speech
      • child’s behaviour controlled by others’ statement > own private speech > internalized speech

term 4 (11 decks)

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