psych 307 - M1

Question 1

What is Cultural Psychology

Answer 1

• culture is rooted in our everyday lives and influences everything we do
• there is racism within cultural psychology: not the same recognition for all
• psychological processes are shaped by experiences

Question 2

Kroeber & Kluckhohn (1952)’s definitions of culture

Answer 2

• historical
• descriptive
• normative
• structural
• psychological

Question 3

Historical definition of “culture”

Answer 3

Culture is the total social heredity of mankind, while as a specific term, a culture means a particular strain of social heredity
- i.e. Across Chinese history, cloth X is used for…

Question 4

Descriptive definition of “culture”

Answer 4

Culture is all social activities in the broadest sense: language, marriage, property system, art, etc
- purely descriptive, laundry list of things people do

Question 5

Normative definition of “culture”

Answer 5

Culture is all standardized social procedures and customs, passed on socially, that form people’s way of life
- step further from descriptive definition – adds social consequence part
- i.e. Younger people are expected to bow (desc), and will be reprimanded of not (normative)

Question 6

Structural definition of “culture”

Answer 6

Culture is a system or organization of interdependent values common to specific social groups, forming a pattern unique to each society
- behaviour is related to structural variables: desire for sanitation, desire for purity, etc

Question 7

Psychological definition of “culture”

Answer 7

Culture consists of all results of human-learned effort at adjustment
- step further from structural definition
- the things we do allow us to adapt to environment

Question 8

Textbook definition of “culture”

Answer 8

Any kind of information acquired from other members of one’s species through social learning that can affect one’s behaviours

Group of individuals existing in some shared context

Question 9

Issues with defining culture

Answer 9

• cultural boundaries are fuzzy, not clearly defined
• constantly changing and emerging
• within-culture v between-culture
  
  • difficult to say 2 groups are different when there are so many differences within 1 group
    - caused by variability among individuals of same culture
    - culture reflects average tendencies within groups, but have enormous degree of individual variation

Question 10

Key Figures: General v Cultural Psychology

Answer 10

• Wilhelm Wundt
  - studied low-level processes – emphasized need for experimental control
  - studied high-level processes: volkerpsychologie – we need less controls to fully understand high-level cultural processes
• John B Watson
  - focused on behaviourism – anything unseen is outside realm of psychology
  - cognitive revolution (= we have thoughts and feelings and mental processes)
  - human brains are the same everywhere – focused on universal topics
• Richard Shweder
  - the mind and environment mutually constitute each other
  - thinking is not universal, but involves interaction with its context
  - cannot consider the mind and culture as separate

Question 11

Levels of universality

Answer 11

• Non-universal: cognitive tools are not found in all cultures, only exist in certain environments (i.e. abacus)
• Existential universal: exists to serve different functions in different contexts (i.e. criticism)
• Functional universal: serves the same function in all cultures, but presented in different degrees (i.e. prosocial punishment)
• Accessibility universal: exists everywhere with the same purpose and extent (i.e. social facilitation)

Question 12

Culturally universal v culturally variable

Answer 12

• culturally universal: more general things (i.e. math, create facial expressions)
• culturally variable: more specific things (i.e. derivatives, some expressions have meaning while others don’t)
• however, difficult to determine which is which – lack sufficient data (most data is WEIRD)
• i.e. things initially considered universal: Figure-Line task, Müller-Lyer Illusion

Question 13

Caution about culture

Answer 13

• people from different places are not “fundamentally different” – more differences within than across groups
• cultural is not something we are born with, but something we learn to have
• culture is not biological, and cultural differences are not necessarily biological differences
  
  • some behaviour can be caused by varying alleles, but should not be biological reductionistic

Question 14

Different approaches to culture

Answer 14

• colour-blind approach: emphasize similarities and ignore cultural differences
  
  • may become unaware of pre-existing cultural biases
  • created due to minimal group paradigm
    - even smallest thing can cause discrimination
• multi-cultural approach: appreciate and recognize differences
  - fares better in society: more positive attitudes, reduced negative emotions, more trust and comfort within companies

Question 15

Majority v Minority in cultural approaches

Answer 15

• Majority prefers colour-blindness
  - feels that multicultural messages exclude them
  - leads to dislike of minorities with strong ethnic identities
  
  • if initially high in prejudice, multiculturalism leads to worse interactions
• Minority prefers multiculturalism
  
  • greater ethnic identification and less perception of threat
  • taxing to downplay or hide identity under colour-blind approach

Question 16

Ethnocentrism

Answer 16

Judging people from other cultures by the standards of one’s own culture
- our values are shaped by our cultural experiences
- socialized to think certain things are good and moral v bad

Question 17

Cultural Psychology v Cross-Cultural Psychology

Answer 17

• Sim: both deal with cultural processes
• Diff: in scope – cross-cultural compares across numerous cultures

Question 18

Cultural Psychology v Sociology

Answer 18

• Sim: relationship betw cultural environment and one’s mental processes and behaviour
• Diff: heavier use of qualitative measures, focus on large abstract societal structures

Question 19

Cultural Psychology v Multicultural Psychology

Answer 19

• Sim: studying how culture affects psychology at individual and social levels
• Diff: focus on how people from different backgrounds interact with each other within one context

Question 20

Berry’s Ecocultural Model

Answer 20

• background variables > (biological and cultural adaptation) > process variables > psychological variables
• background variables: ecological and sociopolitical context
• process variables: ecological influence, genetic transmission, cultural transmission, acculturation
• psychological variables: observable behaviour and inferred characteristics

Question 21

Types of cultural transmission

Answer 21

• Vertical transmission: parents teaching cultural information to their children
  
  • primary form for small-scale societies
  • results in a lot of modelling behaviour: learn by watching, not much explicit teaching
• Horizontal transmission: passing on of cultural information between peers
• Oblique transmission: passing on cultural information from an older generation to a younger generation

Question 22

What type of cultural transmission is most common?

Answer 22

• Hunter gatherer societies: fair proportion of vertical, horizontal and oblique transmission
• Industrialized societies: lots of horizontal and oblique transmission
  
  • has vertical transmission when younger, but increasingly less now
  • oblique transmission comes very early on (daycare, media figures)

Question 23

Cognitive capacities that facilitate cultural transmission

Answer 23

• Language: to convey ideas
• Theory of mind: understand that others have differing mental states = imitative learning (v emulative learning)
• Sharing experiences and goals: allows for cultural and instructed learning (collaboration and scaffolding)

Question 24

Tomasello, Kruger and Ratner (2003): Theory of Cultural Learning

Answer 24

• [0-9 mo] primary focus is on object = emulative learning
• [9 mo - 4 years] sees others as “intentional agents” with independent intentions = imitative learning
• [4-6 years] sees others as “mental agents” with wrong thoughts = instructed learning
• [6-7 years] sees others as “reflective agents” with abstracts or hypotheticals = collaborative learning

Question 25

Cultural transmission in humans

Answer 25

• can learn cultural information much quicker than animals through individual and social learning
• have cumulative cultural complexity: information gets added on, shared by nearly every member, and are selective of who we imitate

Question 26

Brain - definitions

Answer 26

• cephalization factor: pattern to predict what the expected brain weight should be (given body weight)
• Encephalization Quotient (EQ): actual brain weight / expected brain weight

Question 27

Human Brain

Answer 27

• large EQ: more social species with complex social systems
• large brain has costs: requires enormous energy
  = less muscle mass, smaller digestive tract

Question 28

Advantage of large brain

Answer 28

• social brain hypothesis: complexity of social worlds require great cognitive demands = cause evolution of large brains
• when brain increases in size, usually the neocortex that gets bigger
• neocortex: sensory perception, language, consciousness, complex thoughts, problem solving
• neocortex ratio: volume of neocortex / volume of rest of the brain
  - those living in larger groups tend to have larger neocortex ratios

Question 29

Possible causes for large brains

Answer 29

• Food consumption: mental maps to find seasonal fruits
• Food extraction: needs ingenuity to get food
• Social brain: living in complex social environments = has relationship with neocortex ratio

Question 30

Cumulative cultural evolution

Answer 30

• ratchet effect: modifications and improvements stay in the population until further changes occur
• after an idea is learned from others, it can be modified and improved = cultural information grows in complexity and usefulness
• have to understand intent to learn to make it better
• key: reliable and faithful social transmission
  - modifications must be repeated accurately enough that others have solid foundation to make innovations
  - requires imitative learning and communication

Question 31

Muthukrishna et al: Cultural Brain Hypothesis

Answer 31

• group size > brain size > social learning > group size = allows for increased cultural complexity
• as group size increases, it pushes evolution for brain size to deal with larger groups
• social learning: facilitates learning from models to gain information
  - key: interconnectedness

Question 32

biases in imitation

Answer 32

• prestige bias: more likely to attend to models who are better respected and garner more people’s attention
  
  • innate = seen in young children
  • very efficient form of cultural learning
• similarity bias: more likely to target someone similar to you
  
  • motivation: demonstrate your group identity and affiliation
• conformist transmission: tendency to learn from people who engage in behaviours that are more common compared to others
  
  • most useful behaviour should be copied
  • especially when task is difficult / lack confidence / many options to choose from

Question 33

humans are _______

Answer 33

• humans are ultra-social
  
  • more social in terms of # of relationships we maintain
  • more engaged with others around them
• learning from each other leads to accumulation of culture
  - individual learning is too inefficient

Question 34

culture variation is caused by:

Answer 34

• evoked v transmitted culture
• distal v proximal causes
• ecological and geographical variation

Question 35

Cause of Cultural Variation: Evoked v transmitted culture

Answer 35

• evoked culture: humans have biological encoded behaviours that are activated in certain environmental conditions
  
  • universally present, but only evoked in certain situations
    - i.e. pathogen prevalence = conformity
• transmitted culture: learn about cultural practices through social learning and modelling
  
  • can travel with people as they move to new environments
  • more important than evoked culture > important to learn from others

Question 36

Cause of Cultural Variation: Distal v proximal causes

Answer 36

• distal causes: initial differences lead to effects over long periods of time
  - i.e. Neolithic Revolution led to massive shift in lifestyle: large-scale agriculture, animal domestication
  
  • fewer people needed for food production > can invent new technology and become specialists
• proximal causes: something that has a direct and immediate effect to the observation of interest

Question 37

Cause of Cultural Variation: Ecological and geographical variation

Answer 37

• variation caused by influences from physical environment
  
  • i.e. harsh environments = gender roles (value masculinity)

Question 38

Biological v Cultural Evolution

Answer 38

• copying error:
  
  • (b) genes copied faithfully with rare errors
  • (c) errors are common, and often intentional
• direction of transmission:
  
  • (b) vertical transmission from parents to offspring, slow and gradual process
  • (c) horizontal transmission to anyone, instantly to many people, very fast
• type of info:
  
  • (b) genes become common if there is adaptive advantage
  • (c) cultural ideas do not have to be adaptive to be common

Question 39

Memetic View

Answer 39

• cultural evolution parallels to genetic evolution > memes = genes
• replication > variation > selection
• replication: meme copied through imitation
  - replicates rapidly through vertical, horizontal and oblique transmission
  - high in fecundity = creates lots of copies
  
  • initially replications are identical, over time see more variation as more people replicate
• variation: memes can undergo mutation and recombine
  - new memes are produced > leads to “innovations”
  - initially high in fidelity = faithfully replicated, then become low
• selection: not all memes get passed on
  - retained = more likely to spread to others
  
  • survival/reproductive advantage
  • economic advantage
  • easy communicability
  • useful or unexpected ideas
  • emotional ideas: positive affect, fear

Question 40

Language phylogeny

Answer 40

• can create phylogeny trees
• based on shared characteristics

Question 41

Types of papers

Answer 41

• empirical papers: based on new studies, provides new information to the field
• review papers:
  - meta-analyses: statistical summary of published papers > arrive at average of size of effect
  - literature review: information reorganized into novel framework > clarify structure of existing knowledge

Question 42

How have cultures been changing

Answer 42

• becoming increasingly interconnected
  - globalization accelerates process of cultural evolution
  
  • cultural homogeneity in a global level, but heterogeneity on a local level
• becoming more individualistic
• people in many cultures are becoming more intelligent
  
  • Flynn effect: people in current generation have higher IQ scores than earlier generation
  • world is becoming a more complex place

Question 43

Cultural persistence

Answer 43

• building on previous structures: constrained by previous structures
• influence of early conditions: effect would persist more if people have participated in the culture for a longer period
• pluralistic ignorance: tendency for people to collectively misinterpret thoughts that underlie behaviour of others
  
  • exists because it is socially undesirable to express some thoughts
  • people are influenced by what they believe other people feel
• cultures are highly fluid, but has enduring tendency to persist
• people tend to maintain culture if there is stability in their environment and climate

Question 44

humans have universal brains

Answer 44

• humans are not born with cultural knowledge and skills (unlike animals)
• powerful role of socialization: born with similar potentials > different life experiences due to context

Question 45

sensitive period for socialization

Answer 45

• language acquisition
  
  • infants can discriminate all kinds of sounds > whittled down to those heard in critical period
  • simultaneous v sequential bilinguals: 1 v 2 parts of brain used
• acquiring culture
  - Reading 2

Question 46

socialization experience

Answer 46

• [7 mo] fetus has response to acoustic simulation
• can hear: maternal respiration, cardiovascular, intestinal activity and physical movements
• speech must surpass all background noise and other factors > syllables, emphasis on speech, vowels

Question 47

cross-cultural psychological differences

Answer 47

• with age, people from different cultures diverse
• i.e. thoughts of the future between Chinese and Canadian children: similar at age 7, differ at age 9 and 11
• i.e. explanations of others’ behaviour, optimism, tendencies to focus on positive aspects of self

Question 48

Influences of early childhood

Answer 48

• infant’s personal space
• sleeping
• attachment styles
• parenting styles
• the noun bias

Question 49

Influences of early childhood 1: Infant’s personal space

Answer 49

• amount of bodily contact between mother and infant
  - European babies tend to occupy own space > can interact with mom as separate beings
• amount of face-to-face contact
• responsiveness of infant’s vocalization
  - root in child’s ability to take turns in conversations
• likelihood for mother to mirror child’s expressions
  - Western countries have more interactive experiences > rate to acquire certain developmental skills (i.e. recognize themselves in a mirror)

Question 50

Influences of early childhood 2: Sleeping

Answer 50

• sleep is a biological universal, but parameters of sleep is not universal
• cultural differences:
  - sleep time at night: E > A
  - sleep latency: E < A
  - sleep problems: E < A [very subjective, forcing definitions may lose aspects of the problem that are not present in some cultures]
  - sleep alone: E > A
  - parent’s room / bed: E < A
• additional factors: sleeping arrangements, co-sleeping (other cards)

Question 51

Cultural differences in sleeping arrangements

Answer 51

• children will have different early experiences from values held regarding sleep arrangements
• Indians
  - incest avoidance
  - protection of the vulnerable
  - female chastity anxiety
  - respect for hierarchy
• Americans
  - incest avoidance
  - sacred couple
  - autonomy ideal: young children who are needy should sleep along to learn self-reliance

Question 52

Co-sleeping

Answer 52

• (+) good for promoting breastfeeding
• (-) dangerous – leads to SIDS
• when looking at global pattern: cultures that do co-sleeping have fewer SIDS cases
• doing it right:
  
  • no smoking, alcohol or drug use
  • babies should be placed on their backs
  • bedsheets should be tight
  • beds should not have cracks
  • avoid couches

Question 53

Influences of early childhood 3: Attachment styles

Answer 53

• secure attachment: ideal and healthy, allows child to function independently
  
  • occasionally seek their mother’s presence
  • intensify desire to be close to mother after being left alone in unfamiliar situation
• avoidant attachment: prevents child from developing trust or intimacy
  
  • show little distress at mother’s absence
  • avoid her on her return
• anxious-ambivalent attachment: prevents child from developing trust or intimacy
  
  • show frequent distress when mother is present or absent
  • sometimes want to be near mother, sometimes will resist and push her away

Question 54

Limitations with attachment theory

Answer 54

• behaviours vary, may not have same meaning everywhere
• secure attachment style is not always ideal - what is ideal is different
• not all 3 styles are found everywhere
• although there is a universal need to form attachments, we should expect some variation

Question 55

Attachments styles and romantic relationships

Answer 55

• secure a: easy to get close to others and depend on them
• avoidant a: hard to be close to others or trust them
• anxious-ambivalent: wish partner would get closer, but end up driving him/her away

Question 56

Influences of early childhood 4: Parenting styles

Answer 56

• Baumrind’s typology: responsiveness & demandingness
• Responsiveness: degree of warmth, support and acceptance v. rejection and non-responsiveness
• Demandingness: degree parents are controlling and demanding
• High R + High D = Authoritative
  - child centred, help child build emotional regulation
  - high expectations
• High R + Low D = Permissive
  - very child centred
  - few rules, limits, controls
• Low R + High D = Authoritarian
  - little open dialogue with child
  - high expectations, strict rules
• Low R + Low D = Rejecting - Neglecting
  - no limits or monitoring, focused on own needs
  - disengaged from role as paren

Question 57

Cultural differences in affect of parenting styles

Answer 57

• West: Authoritative = better school achievement, see parents as warm, child has autonomy and self-reliance
• Effect is not culturally consistent
  - Authoritarian: bad for European American children, but good for ethnic minorities
  - Authoritative: good for European American, but no relation for ethnic minorities
• General pattern:
  - parenting style typical in a culture leads to more positive outcomes for the child
  - overly strict, controlling parents = negative outcomes for West, but increased family cohesion and grades for non-West with less happy children
• there are trade-offs in parenting styles, ultimately depends on what culture prioritizes (i.e. happiness v achievement)

Question 58

Weaknesses of Baumrind’s Typology

Answer 58

• View is too wrapped up in western ideas: “warmth” viewed differently across cultures
• View does not take into account parenting styles that exist in other cultures
• Further complications: parents with different styles
  - hispanic fathers < mothers in responsiveness
  - Chinese fathers < mothers in responsiveness, but reverses over time

Question 59

Influences of early childhood 5: noun bias

Answer 59

• noun bias: child’s tendency to think more about nouns relative to other type of words > assumed as universal (not anymore)
• due to languages with sentence structures that end in nouns
• due to children hearing about objects differently
  
  • West: analytical > see object as discrete and separate = talk about toy itself more
  • East Asian: holistic > emphasize relationship between objects = explain toy within social routine

Question 60

difficult developmental transitions

Answer 60

• terrible twos: increase in resistant, oppositional behaviour
  
  • West: developmental milestone of establishing their individuality
  • not evident in many other cultures > acting unruly is immaturity, not blossoming individuality
  • places more importance on accommodating for others in social group instead of asserting themselves
• adolescent rebellion: inclination to take risks, be violent, act out against authority figures, susceptible to substance abuse and suicide
  
  • possibly due to hormonal changes in puberty
  • but rebellion and violence is not universal > majority of culture do not expect teenagers to be disobedient
• different explanations for such behaviour:
  - risky behaviour = harshness of environment
  - increased difficulty = individualism where parent control is seen as constraint
  
  • adolescent distress = sheer range of opportunities and having to assume adult roles

Question 61

socialization through education

Answer 61

• teach us to think about the world
  - learn to cluster information
  - skills for analyzing patterns
  - learn how to reflect on ways information is organized
• facilitates abstract logical reasoning: can apply rule based on logic rather than personal experience
  - uneducated people reluctant to generalize beyond experiences
• cannot isolate intelligence from formal learning (most of our tests are saturated with cultural knowledge)
• education reflects society’s beliefs about most important knowledge, learning styles and teaching styles
• case study: math education
  - education shapes the way people think
  - but also affected by teaching methods, value of education, expectations and language

Question 62

Acculturation

Answer 62

• plasticity v specificity
  
  • general (learn a lot) v specific learning (specialize in one area)
• trade-off: need to learn a variety of information, but do not have the resources and cognition ability to constantly learn everything
  - but if we specialize from the beginning, what we choose may not suit us
• best compromise: benefits of both options
  - plasticity in early ages > specificity once you decide

Question 63

importance of school balance

Answer 63

• children face more challenges as children age
  
  • more complex relationships (with peers)
  • handling more independence
  • bigger classroom = more complex social environments
  • more workload

Question 64

Arends-Tóth & Van de Vjiver (2006): Acculturation as a process

Answer 64

• factors that affect acculturation
  
  • person: how opened to new experiences, how social you are
  • group: how insular the group is > stick around sphere v encouraged to go out of sphere
  • context: how multi-cultural or accepting the culture is
• outcomes of acculturation
  
  • psychological outcomes: well-being, mental wellness, extent children act out
  • cultural competence: extent of being comfortable with locals how well you learn language over time

Question 65

Acculturation identification

Answer 65

• higher mainstream identification
  
  • child shows greater cultural competence (ability to communicate, easily make friends with locals)
  • contribute to psychological outcomes
• higher heritage identification
  
  • contribute to psychological outcomes

Question 66

Family matters

Answer 66

• parent involvement with education: h+, m+
• encouraging mainstream adoption: m+
• encourage heritage language maintenance: h+, m-
• encourage mainstream language at home: h-, m+
• child exists within a microsystem: close contacts = teachers, parents, close friends
• mesosystem around the child
  - proximal processes: interactions between different pieces of the microsystem

Question 67

how to conduct cross-cultural research

Answer 67

• selecting samples: depends on RQ
  - how a cultural variable shapes an aspect of psychology: use culture high v culture low
  - to see universality: use samples that are maximally different = if equal, suggest universalism
• making meaningful comparisons
  - understand the culture you study
  - think about methodological equivalence

Question 68

drawbacks of only using university students in industrialized societies

Answer 68

• generalizability
• study’s power: capacity to detect an effect really exists
  - design must be sensitive enough to detect DV
  - participants may be highly similar in experiences = not strong power

Question 69

generating ideas

Answer 69

• deduction: start from a theory and lead away from it
  - theory > hypothesis > prediction
• induction: create a theory over time
  - observations > hypothesis > theory
• abduction: reasoning in the absence of theory
  - specific observation > explanation
  - not trying to generalize, only try to figure out what happened

Question 70

research designs: qualitative v quantitative

Answer 70

• personal text v numerical
• describe v identify regularities
• inductive v deductive
• unstructured v structured
• small sample v large sample
• large quantity of info per participant v large variable quantity
• analysis is interpretation v statistical analyses
• generalizability depends for both

Question 71

Quantitative measures

Answer 71

• explicit
• implicit
• behavioural measures
• neurological measures (fMRI, EEG - can compare across cultures)
• physiological measures
• surveys using number scales (i.e. Likert-type scale)
  - may have response bias > threatens validity of cross-cultural comparisons

Question 72

Response bias

Answer 72

• moderacy bias: circle middle items
• extremity bias: circling opposite extremes (common in Hispanics for emotion terms)
• acquiescence bias: circling “agree” (common among East Asians for questions they’re not sure about)
  
  • solution: flip around statements, then reverse score them
• socially desirable responding: often about questions people are uncomfortable with
  
  • motivations: self deception / image management
  • solution: ensure anonymity, use neutral terms, measure to assess participant’s tendency (= Paulhus Deception Scale)
• reference group effect: answers depend on the group they are using for reference
  
  • solution: make questions more objective and concrete, use specific context-based scenarios rather than abstracts
• deprivation effects: consider what people actually have v what they wish to have

Question 73

Cultural psychology outside the lab

Answer 73

• field study
• ethnography: comprehensive collection of data about a particular group
• indigenous research methodologies: heavy on qualitative - storytelling, interviews
• focus groups: allows for natural interactions, but assertive speakers may dominate
• talking circles: 1 person at a time to avoid domination
• amalgamating methods: use cultural products

Question 74

Translations

Answer 74

• very important, but very difficult
• method 1: have bilingual researcher decide if material is appropriate
  - limitation: have own biases and interpretations
• method 2: back-translation method
  - translator A: original > target
  - translator B: back to original
  
  • compare and resolve discrepancies
• method 3: consensus method
  
  • multiple bilingual speakers arrive at consensus

Question 75

Structural Equivalence

Answer 75

• questions must have structural/construct equivalence = participants thinking of question in the same way
  
  • factor analysis: determine how many factors can be separated in data > generate “fit index”
  • one-factor solution: everyone answers in a similar way (and so on…)
• no structural/construct equivalence > cannot compare

Question 76

Structural/construct equivalence

Answer 76

• questions must have structural/construct equivalence = participants thinking of question in the same way
  
  • factor analysis: determine how many factors can be separated in data > generate “fit index”
  • one-factor solution: everyone answers in a similar way (and so on…)
• no structural/construct equivalence > cannot compare = have to eliminate some questions
  - (+) can compare
  - (-) lose out on some valuable variability

Question 77

Methodological Equivalence

Answer 77

• participants must understand questions in the same way for researchers to make meaningful comparisons
• researchers may need to adjust methods with different cultures
• unavoidable trade-off between experimental control v comparable meaning

Question 78

Experimental v Correlational v Quasi

Answer 78

• correlational and quasi can have intersections when there are 2 groups
• with 2+ groups, it is only quasi (not correlational)
  
  • arbitrary ordering will not make sense = correlational coefficient would be meaningless
• experimental groups allow us to compare individuals within a culture
  
  • allows comparison of pattern of means (instead of magnitude of means)
  • between-groups v within-groups (> 1 condition, response bias no longer a concern)