psych 315 - F

Question 1

Aspects of parenting

Answer 1

• [1] warmth: support, acceptance, responsiveness
• [2] control: managing and enforcing behaviour through rules

Question 2

Types of Discipline

Answer 2

• learning based theories: reinforcement and punishment
• (+) inductive discipline: providing explanation to help shape behaviour
  
  • other inductive discipline: “how would Sara feel”
  • self inductive discipline: “how would you feel if Sara did that”
• (-) physical punishment
• (-) power assertion: using power as a parent (control, coercion, denial of privileges)

Question 3

Parenting matters

Answer 3

• father involvement predicts grades and criminal records
• mother-teen relationships predicts adjustment in adulthood
• mother-teen closeness predicts own marital satisfaction in adulthood
• parent intervention reduces behavioural problems and delinquency

Question 4

Parenting Styles

Answer 4

• uninvolved: low support, low control
  
  • consistent disadvantage for children
• permissive: high support, low control
  
  • falls in between for disadvantage/advantage
  • no rules, indulgent
  • child can do whatever they want
  • more likely for fathers
• authoritarian: low support, high control
  
  • falls in between for disadvantage/advantage
  • gives rules, but does not give support about the rules
  • rules have to be followed no matter what
  • more common in non-White parents
  • less consistent in research for positive outcomes (linked positively outside of North America)
  • more likely for father
• authoritative: high support, high control
  
  • consistent advantage for children
    
    • high self reliance, social competence, GPA, academic competence
    • low somatic symptoms of distress and school misconduct
  • gives rules, but provides support with those rules
  • more likely for mothers

Question 5

Parent Conflict

Answer 5

• linked to poorer outcomes:
  
  • psychological (depressive symptoms)
  • cognitive (less good grades)
• but conflict is not as important as parenting
  
  • supportive parenting is more crucial than conflict
  • good parenting + poor marriage: children are still successful
  • bad parenting + good marriage: children are less successful

Question 6

Parent Divorce

Answer 6

• increases risk of problems by x2
• caused by
  
  • parent conflict
  • stress to child, to parent
  • diminished parenting
  • economic / social difficulties
  • economic / social changes
  • absence of parent / fear of absence of parent
  • relocation
• divorce is a process
  
  • negative impacts seen before divorce happens
  • short term: most severe problems occur within 1-2 years
  • long term: children more likely to drop out of school, get divorced in the future

Question 7

Conflict v Divorce

Answer 7

• divorce has more benefits than staying together fighting
• children struggle a lot if there is not much conflict → divorce
• fewer psychological symptoms if conflict → divorce
  
  • decline in psychological distress
  • increase in overall happiness

Question 8

How culture interacts with parenting

Answer 8

• across culture: similar goal of parenting to protect, nurture and help child be competent members of society
• parenting reflects the values and beliefs of the cultural context – “good” differs
  
  • behavioural norms
  • beliefs about parenting and child development
  • role of extended family
  • financial and physical resources
  • cultural values (i.e. independent v interdependent)
• there is more variability within cultures than between cultures
  
  • normativeness: not everyone in the culture is the same
• regardless of how parents act, a more important factor
  
  • congruency: how close parent is to the norm
  • congruency with others in cultural context is linked to positive outcomes

Question 9

Similarities and Differences of parenting across culture

Answer 9

• [sim] every parent uses some amounts of warmth and control
  
  • warmth and control is beneficial for development in every culture
• [diff] ideal amount of control
  
  • Western: high warmth, high control
    
    • sees authoritative parenting as advantageous
    • control is necessary, but too much is not ideal
  • Chinese: less warmth, more control
    
    • less warmth: tend to withhold praise
      
      • belief that praise leads to self-satisfied children (not good for growth)
      • uses shame to motivate improvement
      • debate: does less praise = less warmth, or is warmth expressed differently? (i.e. involved in school)
    • more controlling: believes in deeply-involved parenting
      
      • tied to cultural values on family and authority
  • Latin parents: more warmth, more control
    
    • strong family values: importance of warmth, but also needs control to create this adherence
    • familismo: family above all else
    • respeto: fulfill obligations and maintain harmonious relationships in family
• mixed findings on the ideal level of control
  
  • classic studies: no negative effects of higher control in Chinese parenting
  • recent studies: negative effect for too much control in Chinese and North American parents
  • possible explanation: maybe warmth and control are not fully descriptive of parenting
  • may be due to differences
    
    • across ages
    • across regions
    • across type of control
    • across changes over time

Question 10

Types of Sibling Relationships

Answer 10

• caregiver relationship: one serves as quasi-parent for the other
• buddy relationship: both siblings like each other, and try to be like one another
• casual/uninvolved relationship: have little to do with each other
• critical/conflictual/rival relationship: one tries to dominate the other (teasing, fighting)

Question 11

Function of Sibling Relationships

Answer 11

• helps practice social skills (non-voluntary aspect: have to learn, cannot just leave)
• buffer for peer rejection, parent conflict and stressful experiences
• chance to try out new behaviours (non-voluntary aspect: built-in automatic audience)
• opportunity to learn about another gender
• promote individuality
  
  • often want to distinguish yourself from siblings
  • help you find your own identity
• learn about conflict
  
  • teach you to fight, negotiate and resolve conflict
  • but too much / too highly-emotional conflict is linked to negative outcomes (negative emotions, aggression)

Question 12

Influence of grandparents

Answer 12

• evolutionary useful for survival: linked to child survival
• boosts emotional well-being
  
  • buffer against negative outcomes: the closer you are to your grandparent, the greater reduction of risk of depressive symptoms

Question 13

Types of Grandparent Roles

Answer 13

• influential grandparent: involved/intimate, an authority figure
• supportive grandparent: involved/intimate, but not an authority figure
• passive / detached grandparent: not particularly involved/intimate
• authority-oriented grandparent: not involved/intimate, has large authority

Question 14

Friendship across development

Answer 14

• definition: a close, mutual, reciprocal and voluntary relationship
• [infancy, 1-2] will have children they prefer to play with
• [pre-school, 3-4]
  
  • can consistently name who they are friends with
  • defines friends in concrete way: who they spend time and play with
• [middle childhood]
  
  • based on shared interests
  • has emotional component (take care and support each other)
  • has mutuality component
• [adolescence]
  
  • based on shared interest and values (more complex and deep)
  • focused on intimacy
    
    • girls emphasize more on emotional intimacy (i.e. self-disclosure)
    • boys emphasize more on physical intimacy (doing things together)
• shift in friendship caused by
  
  • time spent with peers: increases with age → gets deeper and more complex
  • cognitive development (ie. perspective-taking allows for deeper friendship)

Question 15

Cliques v Crowds

Answer 15

• definition
  
  • [cl] smaller, voluntary, friendship-based group
  • [cr] reputation-based group, less voluntary
• basis
  
  • [cl] shared interest and attitudes
    
    • initially same gender → mixed gender
    • initially mixed race → same race
  • [cr] reputation-based - not always accurate with behaviour
• membership
  
  • [cl] unstable (common to move between cliques)
  • [cr] stable

Question 16

Functions of Friendships

Answer 16

• highly beneficial in development
  
  • emotional support: sounding board, self-disclosure
  • physical support: resources (i.e. notes, money)
• buffer during stressful times (similar to siblings / grandparents)
  
  • no cortisol increase when best friend is present in a negative event
• development of social and cognitive skills
• social comparison
• stimulation
• conflict and resolution
• model and reinforcement of behaviour (– deviancy training)

Question 17

Functions of Cliques

Answer 17

• context of friendship
• having a social group
• sense of belongingness
• guide interest in romantic relationships for straight teens
  (most date within their clique)

Question 18

Function of Crowds

Answer 18

• locate individuals within a social environment (how you are seen)
• establish social norms (how to act)
• contribute to sense of identity and self-concept (not true if it doesn’t match)

Question 19

Sociometric Peer Statuses

Answer 19

• popular: many likes, few dislikes (12-20%)
  
  • skilled at initiating and maintaining positive interactions
  • good at recognizing and regulating emotions
  • good at perspective taking
  • rated by teachers as cooperative, friendly, helpful, leaders
  • assertive, but not pushy
• rejected: few likes, many dislikes (12-20%)
  
  • leads to problems
    
    • external problems: violence, delinquency
      (more common for rejected-aggressive)
    • internal problems: depression, anxiety
      (more common for rejected-withdrawn)
    • academic problems
  • rejected-aggressive (40-50%)
    
    • instrumental aggressive → directed towards something (i.e. lunch money)
    • relational aggression → directed towards someone’s social relationship (i.e. spreading rumors)
    • physical aggression
    • bullying
    • aggression causes rejection [not other way around]
  • rejected-withdrawn (40-50%)
    
    • poor social skills
    • socially anxious
    • difficulty with social goals
  • rejected-aggressive withdrawn: mixed of both (less common)
• controversial: many likes, many dislikes (6-20%)
  
  • share characteristics of popular and rejected children
    
    • i.e. nice and cool, but snobby
    • i.e. helpful but aggressive
• neglected: few likes, few dislikes (= don’t show up on the lists) (6-20%)
  
  • timid, shy, lack of social skills
  • often not bothered by this classification — similar to rejected, but don’t experience the anxiety of being in it
• average: (30-60%)
  
  • moderately sociable
  • average cognitive skills

Question 20

Perceived Popularity

Answer 20

• mixed of positive and negative traits
  
  • positive traits of sociometric popular children
  • negative traits, particularly aggression (high in instrumental and relational)
• physically attractive
• more variable: based on changing norms, malleable to context
  (a child may not be equally popular in different contexts)

Question 21

Culture and Peer Status

Answer 21

• Zhang et al (2019): different cultural values impact peer status through what values are prioritized
  
  • across culture: prosocial behaviour and academic achievement are linked to likability and perceived popularity
  • but, more linked in Chinese children (especially perceived popularity)
  • reflect’s China’s collectivistic values that place heavier emphasis on prosocial behaviour and academic achievement

Question 22

Technology on peer relationships

Answer 22

• defining “friend” can be challenging (is following someone = being friends?)
• (+) facilitate more disclosure and intimacy
• (+) linked with more support
• (-) more challenging to resolve conflict
  
  • easier to avoid things
  • more long-lasting
• (-) lacks social cues

Question 23

Online v Face-to-Face

Answer 23

• [sim]
  
  • we tend to interact with the same people face-to-face v online
  • online friendships serves many of the same functions as face-to-face friendship
• [diff for online]
  
  • increased anonymity (depending on platform)
    
    • (+) helps with disclosure
    • (-) allows for more aggression
  • different social cues
  • different emphasis in physical appearance (depending on platform)
  • more public and long lasting
  • easier to find similar others — not confined to location
  • all-day access to friends
  • more quantifiable

Question 24

Romantic Relationships - Developmental Changes

Answer 24

• [11-13] interest in romantic partners
  
  • very little actual context
  • only within yourself / peers
• [14-15] casual, group-based dating
  
  • common to date within your friend group (for straight teens)
  • casual, but relatively long lasting (~6 months)
• [17-18] stable relationships
  
  • more intimate, 1-on-1 time
  • romantic relationships would replace time spent with friends

Question 25

Influences on Romantic Relationships

Answer 25

- _peer relationship_: better quality friendships → predicts better romantic relationship - skills learnt to express your intimacy transfers over - _family relationships_: better quality relationship → predicts better romantic relationship - *attachment theory* — early life experiences set up how we think about relationships broadly - _media_: shapes what we believe (→ can lead to lower satisfaction in the relationship) - _culture_: differences in timing of ages (most research done in North America) - _sexual orientation_: - 5-10% report same-sex relationships - overall the same, but is more complicated due to stigma - more likely to pursue a relationship outside the friend group

Question 26

Unique Functions of Romantic Relationships

Answer 26

- establishes autonomy — independence from parents and friends - develop intimacy — learn to disclose and develop closeness - sense of belonging - boosts feelings of self-worth - status (especially in early adolescence) - furthering development of gender and sexual identity

Question 27

Research on Romantic Relationships

Answer 27

- _early starters_ [10-12] have atypical trajectory - start immediately at serious - linked to negative outcomes (not causal - maybe certain individuals are more likely to seek early relationship) - more externalizing behaviours: acting out, alcohol, delinquency - low social maturity, low self-esteem, high depression - _late bloomers_ follow the typical trajectory - mixed findings: some studies report negative consequences, some don’t - may be linked to cultural norms — will only lead to negative outcomes if you feel delayed - _breaking up_: most common trigger for a depressive episode - _dating violence_: - many youth see it as acceptable in a relationship - associated with depression, suicide ideation, drug use, teen pregnancy, dropping out of school

Question 28

Piaget's Stages of Moral Development

Answer 28

- **[< 4] premoral reasoning** - not yet thinking about the world in moral terms (right-wrong, good-bad) - **[4-7] heteronomous morality** - right v wrong is based on rules — no deeper connotations - get rules from authority figures (i.e. parents) - focus on _consequences_ [breaking 10 cups accidentally > breaking 1 cup on purpose] - _imminent justice_: - belief that punishment is automatic - justice emanate from one’s actions (falling through a bridge after stealing apples → would not fall if did not steal) - _moral realism_: the idea that good, bad and consequences are *real* - **[11-12] autonomous morality (= morality of cooperation)** - rules come from social agreement - sensitive to fairness and equality - focuses on motives and intensions — *purposefulness* - _moral relativism_: rules are set by society (not *real* things), and can chance according to context

Question 29

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 29

- moral development is underlied by: - cognitive development (perspective thinking and abstract thinking) - time spent with peers (drives moral development through lived experience — learn to negotiate and interact)

Question 30

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Answer 30

- *focus on reasoning, not on yes/no answer* - **level 1: preconventional moral reasoning** - _stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation_ - right = obeying authority + avoiding punishment - should steal: can do it in the dark to avoid getting caught - should not steal: will get caught - _stage 2: instrumental and exchange orientation_ - right = what satisfies own interest, and occasionally others’ - should steal: help wife - should not steal: don’t want to go to jail - “tit for tat” reciprocity - **level 2: conventional moral reasoning** (shared conventions between people of right v wrong) - _stage 3: mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and conformity orientation_ - right = what is expected by people / society - importance placed on being ‘good’ - should steal: being a good husband - should not steal: being a good citizen - "good boy" stage - _stage 4: social system and conscience orientation_ - right = doing one’s duty, adhering to authority, upholding social order - focus on social systems of ‘law and order’ - answers might be similar to stage 1, but reason based on law (v being punished) - should steal: duty as social order of marriage - should not steal: illegal as decided by society - **level 3: postconventional moral reasoning** (see as one stage grouped together) - _stage 5: social contract of individual orientation_ - right = universal values of life and liberty - follow rules because we agreed on those deeper values - uphold rules in the best interest of the group / rules agreed upon by the group - emphasis on the law, but willing to change with rational considerations - _stage 6: universal ethical principles_ - right = self-chosen ethical principles that reflect universal principles of justice - civil disobedience: refusal to obey demands of government without resorting to violence / active opposition (i.e. hunger strike) - willing to go against own benefit to advocate for others

Question 31

Criticisms on Piaget's Moral Development Theory

Answer 31

- (+) moral reasoning correlated with cognitive development test performance - (+) children do increasingly consider intentions and motives - (-) underestimated children - < 4 children do think about morality - young children considers intentions, but Piaget’s tests were too verbal and couldn’t reflect the child’s ability

Question 32

Criticisms on Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory

Answer 32

- _gender_: original study had all male participants - women may have a larger *principle of care*: responsibility towards caring for each other - _assessment of moral reasoning_ - was very hypothetical - may see less cultural differences with more concrete stories - _culture_ - [sim] sequence of stages is the same across culture - [diff] different rates and end stages of where adults end up - rural communities: adults end stage is stage 1-2 - [diff] different moral principles in different cultures - _ethics of autonomy_: rights, equality, freedom - _ethics of community_: duty, status - _ethics of divinity_: purity, sanctity

Question 33

Prosocial

Answer 33

- prosocial behaviour: actions that go to help 1+ people, other than yourself - helping, sharing, cooperating, donating, fundraising

Question 34

Antisocial Behaviour

Answer 34

- **antisocial behaviour:** actions that intentionally hurt people, or is harmful towards society / social order - _instrumental aggression:_ motivated by a desire to obtain goal - _reactive aggression:_ in response to others’ behaviour - _physical aggression:_ intent to physical harm - high in early childhood → decreases in later childhood) - _verbal aggression:_ threat, name-calling, yelling - _relational aggression:_ directed towards damaging reputation / relationships - increases across childhood, more for girls) - _cheating:_ very common (80-90% in high school) - lower in childhood → rapidly increases in adolescence - due to pressure for performance, social comparison, not enough time to study, lack of interest, teacher perceived as unfair or uncaring - Zhou et al (2018): children (age 5) are more likely to cheat after overhearing a classmate is smart

Question 35

Why do children engage in prosocial behaviour

Answer 35

- modelling / social learning - family values (that model and value prosocial behaviour) - parenting style / discipline (authoritative, supportive) - opportunities to help (not forcing, but giving opportunity) - life circumstances (trauma increases prosocialness)

Question 36

Influences on prosocial and antisocial behaviour

Answer 36

- [1] developmental - age: increases with development - _individual continuity:_ more prosocial as a child → more prosocial as an adult - Rochat et al: dictator game in 3 and 5 year olds - developmental trend: 5 year olds share more than 3 year olds - [2] individual - nature: has some genetic component - probably linked to personality traits - identical twins are more similar in prosocialness - [3] culture - Rochat et al: [diff] collectivist cultures put more emphasis on maintaining social connections → leads to more sharing in children

Question 37

Parent Gender and Parenting

Answer 37

- _fathers:_ - more likely to engage in physical play - more likely to be permissive / authoritarian - _mothers:_ - more likely to spend time with child, engage in caretaking activities - more likely to be authoritative - *but regardless of gender,* parenting quality relates to outcomes (gender differences don't matter that much)

Question 38

Siblings

Answer 38

- the most long-lasting relationship you will have - very unique relationship - marked by both _warmth and conflict_ - _non-voluntary_ - _neither vertical or horizontal power structure_ - variety in relationships - same v mixed sex: - same: increase in closeness throughout early adolescence - mixed: dip in closeness in early adolescence - difference in age gaps: - increase in conflict in late childhood - declines throughout adolescence - when the decline occurs varies for first v second borns