Psych 306 (research/design) Flashcards
1
Q
posti, crit etc x5
What are the main research paradigms?
A
Positivism, post-positivism, pragmatasim, critical theory, interpretivism, constructivism
2
Q
ologys
What are the main elements that make up a research paradigm?
A
Ontology (nature of reality), epistemology (nature of knowledge), axiology (values), methodology (ways to go about research) methods (specific methods used)
3
Q
What are the distinctions between theoretical constructs, measures, and variables?
A
Theoretical constructs are abstract concepts the things you are trying to take a measurement of., measures are specific tools/method used to make the observations, to assess them, and variables are the operationalised versions used in research
4
Q
What are relational ethics?
A
involves establishing ethical relationships with participants, emphasising mutual respect and acknowledging power dynamics
5
Q
What is photo elicitation?
A
a research method used to prompt discussions, and gather insights, often enhancing qualitative data
6
Q
What is transformative praxis(theory)?
A
Transformational praxis involves applying theory to action in a way that foster positive social change, combining reflection and practical engagement
7
Q
To discover generalisable laws goverering the bran and behaviour would be an example of which two axiology (values)
A
positivist and post positivist
8
Q
To understand and describe the human experience would come under what axiology?
A
constructivist/interpretivist
9
Q
to destroy myths and empower people to change society would come under what axiology?
A
critical theorist
10
Q
what is Axiology
A
what do we value? why are we doing this In the first place
11
Q
What does onotology ask?
A
whats out there to know? what exists In reality?
12
Q
what and how can we know about something is a what-ology
A
epistemology
13
Q
What is the methodology?
A
how can we go about acquiring the knowledge? (overall research approach)
14
Q
What are ethics?
A
Ethics refers to a set of certain aspirational moral values and principles that are intended to guide ethical conduct
15
Q
what is a code of ethics
A
A code of ethics represents the application of ethical principles and values which are prescribed in concrete and forcible behavioural standards for ethical action
16
Q
Deontology comes from which philosopher?
A
Kant
17
Q
Killing one to save five would be an example of which ethic?
A
consequentialism
18
Q
this code was first modern effort for an international effort to protect research participants
A
The nuremberg code 1947
19
Q
a milestone document in the history of human rights. Drafted
by representatives with different legal and cultural
backgrounds from all regions of the world, sets out
fundamental universal human rights
A
the universal declaration of human rights
20
Q
a statement of ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects, including research on identifiable human material and data.
A
the declaration of helsinki
21
Q
A variable that we think is a cause is known as an?
A
independant variable
22
Q
A variable that we think is an effect is called a
__________ variable because the value of this variable depends on the cause
A
dependant
23
Q
Categorical variable - discrete- bus/train/car are examples of what type of variable?
A
nominal variable
24
Q
A categorical variable is one that names distinct entities. In its simplest
form it names just two distinct types of things, for example male or female. This is known
as a?
A
binary variable
25
When
categories are ORDered, the variable is known as an ____ variable. this data tell us
not only that things have occurred, but also the order in which they occurred. However,
these data tell us nothing about the differences between values
Ordinal variable
26
A ________ variable is one that gives us a score for each entity and can
take on any value on the measurement scale that we are using.
continuous
27
What 3 things have to be present to infercause and effect?
(1) cause and
effect must occur close together in time (contiguity);
(2) the cause must
occur before an effect does; and
(3) the effect should never occur without the presence of the cause.
28
Binary nominal and ordinal are what scale of measurement?
categorical
29
Interval and ratio are what scale of measurement?
quantitative
30
Whats a confounding factor?
a variable that is related to one or more of the variables - it may falsely demonstrate a apparent association between the two factors -
31
Whats the difference between "between subjects design and within subjects?
between subjects - randomly allocated to either condition - within subjects - participants do both experiments
32
the two main ways in which a distribution can deviate from normal:
(1) lack of
symmetry (called skew) and (2) pointyness (called kurtosis
33
a tall and pointy distrubition is know as what?
Positive kurtosis / Leptokurtic
34
A low and long distrubition is known as?
negative kurtosis/Platykurti
35
What are practice effects?
Participants may perform differently in the second condition because
of familiarity with the experimental situation and/or the measures being used.
36
what are boredom effects
Participants may perform differently in the second condition because
they are tired or bored from having completed the first condition.
37
What is the mode?
the most commonly reported numbera
38
what is the median?
the middle numer
39
what is the mean?
the center of mass - all all the numbers then divide by the amount of numbers reported
40
most of the data falls between +/- 1 what?
SD
41
how do you find the range
biggest no - smallest
42
What are the 3 points to be able to confer cause and effect
(1) cause and effect must occur close together in time (contiguity);
(2) the cause must occur before an effect does; and (3) the effect should never occur without the presence of the cause.
43
where does the tail point in a negative skew?
the small end/ the corner
44
where does the tail point in a positive skew?
to the higher end (right)
45
a crude measure of the relationship between variable is called the what?
covariance
46
the correlation coefficient has to lie between?
-1 and 1
47
A coefficient of +1 indicates what?
a perfect positive relationship
48
a coefficient of -1 indicates what?
a perfect negative relationship
49
a coefficient of 0 indicates?
no linear relationshipw
50
whats the third variable problem?
that even if two variables are related, we cannot say that causation = correlation, that there is the possibility of a third unmeasurable variable we are missing
51
-Ology
what is the true or real, the nature of reality
asks: what is existence and what is the nature of existence
Ontology
52
-ology
the nature of knowledge, methods of gaining knowledge
asks; what do you know and how do you know it?
epistemology
53
What’s an example of a theoretical
construct operationalised as
measurable variable?
For example, a personality dimension, such as neuroticism, might be described as a theoretical construct measurable by means of a questionnaire
54
What are the main steps in NHST NullHypoStandardTesting and in
what order?
NHST is a method of statistical inference by which an experimental factor is tested against a hypothesis of no effect or no relationship based on a given observation.
55
What does it mean if a test statistic is
within the critical region of a sampling
distribution?
A critical region, also known as the rejection region, is a set of values for the test statistic for which the null hypothesis is rejected. i.e. if the observed test statistic is in the critical region then we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.
56
What sort of data and research
question do you use a chi-squared
goodness of fit test for?
Is the fit good to what we think?
Do the frequencies of these groups
differ from those expected under
H0?
Research Q: Can a person mentally simulate randomness,
e.g. picking a card at random?
Study design: One participant imagines picking a random
card for 200 trials; researcher records suit of card
57
What sort of data and research
question do you use a chi-squared
test of independance for?
Is there an association between
these two variables (do the
frequencies within one variable
depend on the levels of the other)?
Research Q: Do people in different suburbs have different
political preferences?
Study design: 200 people in each of three suburbs are
polled on their two-party preference (National vs Labour)
58
Whats the difference between the Chi goodness of fit and the test of independence?
There are two types of Pearson's chi-square tests: The chi-square goodness of fit test is used to test whether the frequency distribution of a categorical variable is different from your expectations. The chi-square test of independence is used to test whether two categorical variables are related to each other.
59
● What’s the difference between a main
effect and an interaction, and how do
you tell from a plot which is present?
A main effect is the effect one independent variable has on the dependent variable without taking other independent variables into account. An interaction is the effect one independent variable has on another independent variable, and how that effect translates to the dependent variable.
If the line is horizontal, in other words, parallel to the x-axis, then there is no main effect exists. The response mean is the same across all factor levels.
Similarly, if the line is not horizontal, then the main effect exists. In other words, the response mean is not the same across all factor levels. The slope determines the magnitude of the main effect.
A “main effect” is the effect of one of your independent variables on the dependent
variable, ignoring the effects of all other independent variables.
A statistical interaction occurs when the effect of one independent variable on the
dependent variable changes depending on the level of another independent variable. In our
current design, this is equivalent to asking whether the effect of teacher expectations changes
depending on the age of student.
** there is a main effect if the means of both lines do not match up i.e. line a& line B mean are different means main effect of AB
If 1 and 2 do no meet up its 1 and 2 main effect
if the difference in the scores of a1 and a 2 is like 25 but b1 and b2 is 69 there is an interaction
60
If your test has low statistical power, what
does that mean
Is the test has low statistical power it means that the probability of getting a true positive is low - increase sample size
Statistical power, or sensitivity, is the likelihood of a significance test detecting an effect when there actually is one.
A true effect is a real, non-zero relationship between variables in a population. An effect is usually indicated by a real difference between groups or a correlation between variables.
High power in a study indicates a large chance of a test detecting a true effect. Low power means that your test only has a small chance of detecting a true effect or that the results are likely to be distorted by random and systematic error.
Power is mainly influenced by sample size, effect size, and significance level. A power analysis can be used to determine the necessary sample size for a study.
61
What are the 5 ways to increase statistical power?
1. increase...
2. increase...
3. increase...
4. Reduce _____ Error
5. Tails
Increase the effect size. To increase the expected effect in an experiment, you could manipulate your independent variable more widely (e.g., spending 1 hour instead of 10 minutes in nature) to increase the effect on the dependent variable (stress level). This may not always be possible because there are limits to how much the outcomes in an experiment may vary.
Increase sample size. Based on sample size calculations, you may have room to increase your sample size while still meaningfully improving power. But there is a point at which increasing your sample size may not yield high enough benefits.
Increase the significance level. While this makes a test more sensitive to detecting true effects, it also increases the risk of making a Type I error.
Reduce measurement error. Increasing the precision and accuracy of your measurement devices and procedures reduces variability, improving reliability and power. Using multiple measures or methods, known as triangulation, can also help reduce systematic research bias.
Use a one-tailed test instead of a two-tailed test. When using a t test or z tests, a one-tailed test has higher power. However, a one-tailed test should only be used when there’s a strong reason to expect an effect in a specific direction (e.g., one mean score will be higher than the other), because it won’t be able to detect an effect in the other direction. In contrast, a two-tailed test is able to detect an effect in either direction.
62
Which 3 pieces of information should you
report from the R output for a t test?
t- stat, df. p value
descriptive statistics: mean and standard
deviation
n.s or significant p value and degrees of freedom
63
What is the “gist” of what the formula for
variance tells us? How about the F value?
Variance: Variance measures the average squared deviation of each number from the mean of the data set. It tells us how much the numbers in a data set differ from the mean value. A higher variance indicates that the data points are spread out more widely around the mean, while a lower variance indicates that the data points are closer to the mean.
F-value: The F-value is used in the context of an ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) test. It compares the variance between different groups to the variance within the groups. The F-value is calculated as the ratio of the variance between the groups to the variance within the groups. A higher F-value suggests that there is more variance between the groups than within the groups, indicating that at least one group mean is significantly different from the others. This is used to determine if the observed differences between group means are statistically significant.
64
When do you use A parametric vs non-parametric test?
Use Parametric Tests when:
The data is normally distributed or nearly so.
The sample size is large enough to justify the normality assumption (Central Limit Theorem).
The data is measured on an interval or ratio scale.
Scale: Parametric tests require data to be measured on an interval or ratio scale.
Use Non-Parametric Tests when:
The data does not meet the normality assumption.
The sample size is small.
The data is ordinal or nominal.
The data has outliers or is skewed.
In summary, the choice between parametric and non-parametric tests depends on the nature of your data and whether the assumptions required for parametric tests are satisfied.
Scale: Non-parametric tests can be used with ordinal data or data that does not meet the assumptions of parametric tests (e.g., nominal data or data that is not normally distributed).
65
When do you use a two-sided vs one-sided
test? Which is stronger
Use a 2 sided when you are interested in deviations that go either way
use a one sided if you have a specific direction in your hypothesis - one sided is stronger
66
What does the confidence interval tell you? use the words true population value
a range within which
the true population
value falls 95% of the
time
○ (i.e. if you collect 100
samples and
calculate CIs, 95% of
those CIs contain the
true mean)
67
Why do some tests require follow-ups?
Identifying Specific Differences
Post-Hoc Tests: After conducting an omnibus test like ANOVA, which can tell you that there are significant differences among group means, follow-up post-hoc tests (e.g., Tukey's HSD, Bonferroni correction) are needed to determine exactly which groups differ from each other.
Multiple Comparisons: These tests help control for the family-wise error rate when making multiple pairwise comparisons, ensuring that the overall Type I error rate is kept at an acceptable level.
Further Investigation of Significant Findings - effect size and CI.
68
-What does Bayes Rule allow us to figure
out, in a research setting?
Bayes' Rule tells you how to calculate a conditional probability with information you already have.
69
When you look at a graph showing the
prior, likelihood, and posterior, what
does each curve tell you? What is on the
x and y axes of the graph?
θ -theta, is the unknown parameter, and x denotes data.
Prior Curve: Shows your initial beliefs about the parameter.
Likelihood Curve: Shows how likely the observed data is for different parameter values.
Posterior Curve: Shows your updated beliefs about the parameter after considering the data.
he x-axis would range from 0 to 1, representing all possible values of
𝜃
θ.
The y-axis would show the probability density for the prior and posterior, and the likelihood for each value of
𝜃
θ.
70
What does a Bayes Factor tell us? What
do we conclude if the BF is very large?
Very small? Exactly 1?
We can escape this whole confusing mess of the traditional t-test by calculating a Bayes Factor rather than a p value. A Bayes Factor is a number that tells us how likely it is there’s a difference between groups
For example, a Bayes Factor of 10 means it’s ten times more likely there is a difference than there isn’t.
A Bayes Factor less than 1 is also informative. For example, a Bayes Factor of 0.1 (1/10) tells you it’s ten times more likely that there isn’t a difference than there is.
A Bayes Factor of exactly 1 tells you that the presence or absence of a difference is equally likely.
All the above assumes that, before you collected the data, you thought the presence or absence of a difference were equally likely outcomes. If that is not the case, see more on Bayes Factors.
71
● What are the core differences between
Bayesian and frequentist methods?
the frequentist approach assigns probabilities to data, not to hypotheses, whereas the Bayesian approach assigns probabilities to hypotheses. Furthermore, Bayesian models incorporate prior knowledge into the analysis, updating hypotheses probabilities as more data become available.
What is the main difference?
Frequentist: the parameter is a fixed quantity (no probability about it)
Bayesian: the parameter is a random variable (no right answer)
72
What are “p-hacking” and “HARKing”? What
are some of the problems with
“questionable research practices”?
P-hacking is also known as data dredging, data fishing, and data snooping. P hacking is the manipulation of data analysis until it produces statistically significant results, compromising the truthfulness of the findings.
HARKing- Hypothesizing after the results are known refers to the practice of presenting unexpected findings as a priori hypotheses or failing to report empirically unsupported hypotheses that were derived a priori and guided the research.
73
How do questionable research practices
affect the rates of false positive, true
positive, false negative, and true negative
results in the scientific literature?
Makes it hard to replicate the studies.
increases false positives and underreporting of negatives
QRPs distort the scientific literature by increasing false positives, potentially overshadowing true positives, and contributing to the underreporting of false negatives and true negatives. This leads to a skewed understanding of research findings and undermines the reliability and credibility of scientific research. Addressing QRPs through more rigorous methodologies, transparency, and ethical research practices is crucial to improving the accuracy and integrity of scientific literature.
74
● What is pre-registration and how does it
help?
Pre-registration is the practice of deciding your research and analysis plan prior to starting your study and sharing it publicly, like submitting it to a registry.
Pre-registering may prevent researchers from overfitting to their data or, in other words, making analysis decisions that are too specific to a particular sample or study. Pre-registering may also prevent the use of questionable research practices, like p-hacking, cherry picking, or hypothesizing after results are known (sometimes called “HARKing”). Pre-registering can also increase the transparency and rigor of research and evaluation, which, in turn, may help to bolster public confidence in the results of federally funded research and evaluation.
75
What factors decide whether a
qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
approach might be best?
Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or hypothesis) Use qualitative research if you want to understand something (concepts, thoughts, experiences)
Research question, time and resources, nature of data
76
What are the main differences between
positivist, post-positivist, constructivist,
and critical theorist approaches to
research?
the two positivist views have single objective realities, but post acknowledges there can be errors, in normal, everything is truth and exact.
constructivist - multiple realities, socially constructed, individual knowledge
critical - knowledge is between the individual and groups, multiple realities, shaped by social, political, cultural values
77
What is thematic analysis, and what are
the main steps to conduct it?
Thematic analysis is the process of identifying patterns or themes within qualitative data
There are various approaches to conducting thematic analysis, but the most common form follows a six-step process: familiarization, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing up.
* Minimally describes and organises the
data - intepretative focus
* Small codes > large theme
⚬ Theme = pattern across the dataset
⚬ Organised around a central concept
⚬ Meaningful to research question
* Researcher is an active part of the
analysis process
* Flexible but structured
78
What is visual qualitative research?
a qualitative research methodology that relies on artistic mediums to produce and represent knowledge.
79
Who created photovoice and what theory was it based off?
Caroline Wang -Photovoice is an established method developed initially by health promotion researchers (Wang and Burris, 1997).
Feminist theory
80
What are the “four Rs” of photo
elicitation research, - 4 - 'res'
researcher found visual data - generated/collected by the researcher
Researcher created visual data - MADE by the researcher
respondent (participant) generated data - participant finds/generates
representation and visualisation of data
81
This 'ology' asks: What is existance? and what is the nature of existence?
Ontology
82
This 'ology' asks : What do you know? and how do you know it?
Epistemology
83
What are some considerations for acquiring data in Qualitative research
Form of data (objects, words, images)
* Sampling
⚬ Specific (i.e. not representative)
⚬ Opportunistic/ snowballing
⚬ Purposive
* Sample size
* Ethics
⚬ Confidentiality, anonymity, relationality, power
* Researcher/ participant relations
* Researchers' roles in the research (ownership, how active, etc
84
Talanoa is a pacific research method that involves what?
"to talk about nothing in particular" - free open-ended, intersubjective
85
What is a “walk-along” or “go-along”
interview, and when might a researcher
use this method?
just walking around with participant, show from their perspective -Useful for studying health issues of a community within a local area
imaginative journeys take up beyond street life
86
a Researcher introduces visual materials for discussion is an example of what 'R'
Researcher found visual data
Visual materials are used to elicit discussion in one-on-one semi-structured interviews,
household interviews, paired interviews, focus groups etc
* Want to understand how an issue affects a community, images provide a bridge
87
How visual materials are presented in research is an example of which 'r'
Representation and visualisation of ‘data’
88
In this R- The researcher is often a participant and/or member of the same community participating
in the research study
* Examples include autoethnographic, autobiographical, autophotography et
Researcher CREATED visual data
89
What does it mean to 'Democratise' the method?
1. Introduce a democratic system or
democratic principles to.
* "public institutions need to be
democratised“ e.g. housing policy
2. Make (something) accessible to
everyone.
* "mass production has not
democratised fashion“
* How does this apply to research?
12
90
How does the analysis of images in
visual qualitative research differ from
the analysis of text in thematic analysis?
thematic analysis was developed for coding
linguistic data and carries the assumption that meaning is
encoded into texts and can be decoded through set coding
procedures that fragment and decontextualize experience.
The problem with TA is that it assumes that the meaning is
encoded in the image and you just have to get more and
more sophisticated at ‘reading’ or describing the image
A pivotal aspect of PE is not so much studying the images
as analysing how participants respond to them, attributing
social and personal meanings and values (
91
What five key concepts guide photo
elicitation projects?
1. Images _____
2. Pictures can ______
3. Community members ought to ________
4. The process requires that from the outset _____
5. Photovoice emphasizes _________
1. Images teach
2. Pictures can influence policy
3. Community members ought to participate in creating and defining the images that shape policy
4. The process requires that from the outset planners
bring policy makers and other influential people to the
table to serve as an audience
5. Photovoice emphasizes individual and community
action
92
What five steps are involved in analysing the
images in a photo elicitation project?
1. Identify the____________
2. Grid, plot & d___
3. Key c_______, e____ & d___
4. Ordering _____, L___ & constructing ___ _____
5. I___ & w_____
1. Identify the topic & scope of data
2. Grid, plot & defamilizarize
3. Key categories, examples & discrepancies
4. Ordering categories, linking & constructing new
story
5. Interpretation & writing
93
What are the “levels of mass
communication” and in what ways do
journalism and visual qualitative research
overlap?
Production - how stories emerge
Representation - how news items play out
reception - how media is negotiated by audience
They all involve collecting, organizing, describing and interpretation of data
94
What would be better than just Thematic analysis for visual data and why?
Barthes (1981) stresses the POLYSEMIC quality of images, i.e.
the fact that they have many potential meanings and
interpretations.
* Relates to Walter Benjamin’s notion of the dialogical
image= the meaning of a visual image is negotiated
between the actual image and the
reader/viewer/researcher.
* In photo-elicitation research we want to know and confirm
what the participant is intending in the production of their
image, so we enter into dialogue –
* Why did they take that image? What is the story being
elicited?
95
What are the key historical documents
laying the foundation for research
ethics? When were they each written,
and what key contributions did each of
them make?
The Nuremberg Code is a set of ethical principles essential for conducting human experimentation and research, formulated in response to the inhumane experiments conducted during World War II. Established in 1947 as part of the verdict in the Nuremberg Trials, which prosecuted Nazi war criminals, the Code is foundational to modern bioethics and research ethics. Voluntary/fruitful for society/unnecessary suffering/no death of disabling injury/risk proportional to humanitarian importance
Nuremberg INFLUENCED - Helsinki declaration and Review boards
The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), adopted by the General Assembly in 2007, provides a comprehensive framework of rights for indigenous peoples. It addresses various aspects of their lives, including cultural integrity, land rights, and self-determination. In the context of research, UNDRIP places a strong emphasis on protecting the rights and interests of indigenous peoples.
free,prior, informed consent/participation in decision making/ protection of heritage/equality
96
What does “relational ethics” refer to,
and what concepts and frameworks
does it draw from?
Relational ethics critical - embraces Māori ideal of transformative
praxis (Pihama & Southey, 2015) –
* Research is conducted with expectations that it benefits
people with whom we work in close proximity
* E.g research with NOT on people
Approach applied at personal, service & structural levels
* (1) Personal case workshops with service providers to inform their
work with clients
* (2) Embedding humane cultural responses by supporting housing
& social services development, including establishing transitional
housing facility for men in TGA (left image). Involves working
through moments of openness & communing with one another.
* (3) City Councils, Judges & policy forums. Iinitiatives to promote
understanding and more dynamic and person-centered responses
97
What are the Te Ara Tika guidelines for
Māori research ethics, and what are
their core principles?
Framework for addressing maori ethical issues within the context of decision making by ethics committee members
Maori ethical framework
- Tiki (research design)
- Mana- justice and equity
- Whakapapa - relationships
- Manaakitange - culture and social responsibility
Move beyond consultation to engage with positively and substantially with Maori
98
What are the different levels of
engagement with Māori that research
may fall under in Aotearoa NZ?
1. research with no specific Maori component
2. Research specifically relevant to maori
3. research involving maori
4. Maori centered research
5. Kaupapa maori research
99
What is Vision Mātauranga, what are the
names for the “four pillars” it rests on, and
what do they each mean?
Science policy framework in NZ intergrating western science with maaturanga maori that are only possible with collaboration between the two
Vision Mātauranga aims to unlock the innovation and science
potential of Māori knowledge, resources, and people for the
environmental, economic, social and cultural benefit of Aotearoa
Partnership - participation and protection (The hut with 4 pillars )
Martauranga (exploring indigenous knowledge and research)
Indigenous innovation, (innnovation from maori knowledge)
hauora and oranga (health and welbeing)
Taio (sustanibility)
100
What is Kaupapa Māori research?
Gives full recognition to Māori cultural values and systems
* Is a strategic position that challenges dominant Pākehā constructions of research
* Determines the assumptions, values, key ideas and priorities of the research
* Ensures that Māori maintain conceptual, methodological and interpretive control over the research
* Is based on a philosophy that guides Māori research and ensures that Māori protocol will be followed during research
processes
Kaupapa maori is more than a form of resistance it is the actualisation of tino rangatiratanga; the fundamental basis by which maori tikanga can be used to inform policy, educational and research practice and the health and wellbeing of maori
Raises questions about how youre constructing the truth
Kaupapa Māori is a non-deficit approach with the
potential to avoid superficial issues and examine
the deeper underlying issues including structural
inequities
From inception to publication and beyone - its not just a short term relationship
101
What are some of the assumptions of
the traditional Western scientific
worldview, and how might they be
ill-suited to research in NZ and other
Pacific contexts?
102
What research paradigms and
methodological approaches might be
better suited?
There has been some contention among
academics, in that the scrutiny placed on
kaupapa Māori theory, reminds one of the
power of colonisation. In particular, Māori
academics often view qualitative methods
as being highly compatible with Kaupapa
Māori Research (Barnes, 2000; Smith, 2009;
Smith, 2016). Qualitative methods are
designed in a way which allows for the
exploring of personal lifeworld’s (Braun,
Clarke & Terry, 2014)
The flexibility within
qualitative methods compliments Kaupapa
Māori Theory, an example of this is the
ability to undertake interviews in a setting
the collaborator feels comfortable.
103
What are some of the upsides and
downsides of creative methods in
research?
Creativity is a subjective expression, they can be evocative, art is accessible, and can explore complex themes without words and can be spirtiual
104
What are pūrākau are how have they
been used in Kaupapa Māori research?
Purakau is one of the many narrative forms for maori to consolidate and construct contextual information - stories necessary for growth, they're relational and share intergenerational wisdom
storywork as a method - presents opportunities to think about re-storying experiences
105
What is the Mana Moana framework, who
was it established by, and what does it seek
to do?
Dr. karla mila - The interface between cultural understandings: Negotiating new spaces for Pacific
mental health by Karlo Mila-Schaaf Maui Hudson (2009)
“The “negotiated space” is a place of purposive re-encounter, reconstructing and re-
balancing of ideas and values in complementary realignments that have resonance
for Pacific peoples living in Western oriented societies
This is purposive, open and creative space which allows tensions and conflicts
to be understood, sometimes mediated but ideally always approached constructively
106
What are some of the concepts common to
many Pacific languages that Mana Moana
identifies, and what do they each mean?
The core focus of Mana Moana is the vitalisation and mobilisation of indigenous
Pasifika language, knowledge, values, culture, ways of knowing and viewing the
world. The Mana Moana Experience operates on the understanding that Pasifika
ancestral cultural resources are fundamental and essential for optimal
contemporary living and leadership.
Principals
Arofa - love, empathy, respect
Mana- integrity
Kaitiaki - cultural integrity
Tupu- Creative, innovative
107
What is Kaupapa Māori research? What are
the names for the principles it rests on, and
what do they each mean?
Tino Rangatiratanga – The Principle of Self-Determination.
Allows Māori to control their own culture, aspirations and
destiny
* Taonga Tuku Iho – The Principle of Cultural Aspiration.
Emphasises the validity of Māori ways of knowing, doing
and understanding the world
* Ako Māori – The Principle of Culturally Preferred Pedagogy.
Teaching and learning practices that are preferred by Māori
* Te Tiriti o Waitangi – The Principle of the Treaty of
Waitangi. Critically analyse relationships, challenge the
status quo and affirm Māori rights through te Tiriti
Kia piki ake i ngā raruraru o te kainga – The Principle
of Socio-Economic Mediation. KMR provides positive
benefit to Māori communities overcoming hardship
Whānau – The Principle of Extended Family Structure.
Relationships are central and the researcher has
ongoing relationship with research stakeholders
Kaupapa – The Principle of Collective Philosophy. The
research contributes to the community’s aspirations
and purpose
Āta – The Principle of Growing Respectful
Relationships. Building and nurturing relationships
and wellbeing when engaging with Māori
108
What 'ology does this represent? Wha values guide research?
Re la t io ns h ip s
m a t t e r b e c a u s e
t h e y a re w h a t
m a ke u s 'u s '
Axiology
109
The world is interconnected and we have a place in the world is a statement of what Ology
Ontology
110
Wht is knowledge? - We can understand our place in the world by how we relate to others (people places things) - Is an example of what ology?
Epistemology
111
The 'scientific method' is a result of which 2 paradigms
post-positivist and positivist
112
to understand how people construct/shape themselves is an example of what paradigm
Critical theory
113
In terms of the Chi squared tests - what direction do they follow?
Always non-directional
114
Performing muliple tests ie t-tests on 10 variables increases chances of false positive
To counter this we need to establish a more consertive pvalue
This is called the _________ ________ & changes 0.05 to ____.___ -- Divide it by the amount of tests youre running
Bonferroni correction
0.005
115
What are the three unbiased estimators?
Samples statistics that can be used to estimate a population parameter include the sample mean, proportion, and standard deviation. These are the three unbiased estimators.
116
What are biased and unbiased estimators?
A biased estimator is one that deviates from the true population value. An unbiased estimator is one that does not deviate from the true population parameter.
117
what is the formula for experimental probability?
of favourable outcomes so far, / total outcomes already
118
What are the three known parameters for conditional probability? and what do they stand for?
- Sensitivity is the probability a test will be positive among those with the disease
Covid:73% sensitivity = P(test+s|sick)=73%
- Specificity is the fraction of those without the disease who will have a neg result
Don’t have covid: 99% = 99% P(test-|healthy = 99%)
Covid prevalence - lets assume 1%
Sensitivity and specificity covary - most prefer betting correct neg result over true positive.
119
Whats the difference between covarience and correlation?
Covariance is when two variables vary with each other, whereas Correlation is when the change in one variable results in the change in another variable.
Covariance: This measures how two variables change together.
Positive covariance: Both variables tend to increase or decrease together.
Negative covariance: The variables tend to move in opposite directions.
Zero covariance: The variables do not relate to each other.
Correlation: This describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to 1.
Correlation of -1: Perfect negative correlation; as one variable increases, the other decreases.
Correlation of 1: Perfect positive correlation; as one variable increases, the other also increases.
Correlation of 0: No relationship between the variables.
120
Sample mean is
already an biased/unbiased
estimate
Unbiased
121
True or false: Both F and t measure the variability between groups, compared to the overall variability in
the data
true
122
Retaining the null = True ___ or false _____
Rejecting the null = True_____ or False _____
Retaining the null = negative
Rejecting the null = Positive
123
sample SD is a biased/unbiased estimate?
biased but is fixed with a minor correction
124
What is the test statistic for a correlation test? (2 items)
t value corresponding to the
observed correlation value r
“A two-tailed correlation test with
significance level α = 0.05 found
no evidence for a relationship
between a student’s score on Quiz
1 and their score on Quiz 2
(r(48) = .22, p = .118)
125
What statistical test would this fall under?
Research Q: Do children in multilingual homes have larger
or smaller vocabularies than average for their age?
Study design: Based on prior research we believe the
average two year old knows 300 words. We now estimate
vocab size for a random sample of 60 two-year-olds from
multilingual homes.
Null hyp. H0
: Mean vocab size = 300
Alternative hyp. H1
: Mean vocab size ≠ 300
one-sample T test
- testing one variable against the mean
126
What is the correct statistical test?
Research Q: Is there a difference in vocabulary size
between children from monolingual vs multilingual homes?
Study design: We estimate the vocabulary size in two
random groups of 60 two-year-olds, one group from
multilingual homes and the other from monolingual.
Null hyp. H0
: Meanmono
= Meanmulti
Alternative hyp. H1
: Meanmono
≠ Meanmulti
Independent samples
127
What does the F value tell us?
The F value summarises how large
the between-group differences
are compared to the within-group
ones
Like the chi2 test it can only be positive
128
How can Bayes’ theorem be used in psychology research?
it can be used to evaluate the strength of evidence for
different hypotheses
129
What is the law of large numbers and how is it different to central limit theorm?
Law of large - as the sample size grows, its mean get closer to the true average of the population
Central limit theorom - says a sampling distribution of the mean will always be normally distributed as long as the sample Is large enough
130
An online study collects the following variables:
(i) “gender_identity”, which participants type into a blank text response
(ii) “favourite_movie”, which participants select from a list of 100 options
(iii) “spatial_reasoning_score”, which is a numeric value from 0-100, measuring the
participants’ performance on a series of spatial reasoning tasks (e.g. mental rotation and
shape-matching)
What is the type of each variable?
a) (i) categorical nominal; (ii) categorical ordinal; (iii) categorical ordinal
b) (i) categorical binary; (ii) continuous; (iii) continuous
c) (i) continuous; (ii) categorial nominal; (iii) continuous
d) (i) categorical nominal; (ii) categorical nominal; (iii) continuous
d) (i) categorical nominal; (ii) categorical nominal; (iii) continuous
131
Why is it important to plot RAW data?
Because you may miss key patterns in the data if you just look at the summary data- sd, m etc
132
What is the best
explanation for why the formula includes a “square root” step?
a) To obtain an unbiased estimate of the population variability, based on the sample
variability
b) To add up the deviations from the mean across all datapoints
c) To end up with a positive measure of how much each datapoint deviates from the mean
d) To end up with a measure of variability that is in the same units as the original
measurements
D - we need them all in the same units
133
A magician claims to have a magical coin that comes up heads more often than it does tails.
A skeptical audience member decides to use statistics to test their claim. They plan to do a
binomial test (not covered in lectures), with the following hypotheses:
H0 (null hypothesis): The coin is normal, and the proportion of heads it produces
equals 0.5
H1 (alternative hypothesis): The magician is right, and the proportion of heads the
coin produces is greater than 0.5
The audience member flips the coin 100 times, and the coin comes up heads on 58 of those
flips. They perform the binomial test and obtain a p value of .067, and conclude that the coin
is NOT magical. Which of the following could describe this result?
a) False negative or False positive
b) False positive or True positive
c) True positive or False negative
d) True negative or False negative
d) True negative or False negative
134
An organisational psychologist is interested in how different wellbeing initiatives affect
employees. In a workplace experiment, they assign employees of a company to one of five
initiatives (meditation, seminars, yoga, healthy lunches, or team sports) and one of two
durations (two weeks or two months). At the end, they measure employee satisfaction as
score on a 30-item questionnaire.
Which statistical test would be most appropriate to analyse the data resulting from this
experiment?
a) Factorial ANOVA
b) One-way ANOVA
c) Chi-square test of independence
d) MANOVA
A - factorial
135
True or false: Both F and t follow a symmetric distribution, under the null hypothesis.
False- is not symmetrical they go in one direction only
136
A researcher in interested in the effect of various nootropic drugs (caffeine, L-theanine, or
modafinil) on cognitive performance. They assign volunteers to take one of the three drugs
for a week, then measure their score on a standardised cognitive abilities test. However, the
researcher is worried that some of the drugs may disrupt sleep more than others. What could
they do to estimate the effect of drug type on cognitive ability, controlling for differences in
sleep?
a) Measure sleep duration, and use it as a covariate in an ANCOVA.
b) Measure sleep duration, and use it as a second outcome measure in a MANOVA.
c) Measure sleep duration, and exclude participants with very high or low values.
d) Measure sleep duration, and include it as a second factor in a two-way ANOVA
A - use it as a covariate
137
Do sampling distributions always tell us the same thing?
no
138
A news article reports that “there is a large effect of gender on mathematics grades in
primary school children.” Based on your statistical understanding of effect sizes, how would
you most likely interpret this claim?
a) The difference between boy’ and girls’ maths grades is less than half as big as the standard
deviation within each group.
b) The difference between boys’ and girls’ maths grades is almost as big as the standard
deviation within each group.
c) The distributions of boys’ and girls’ maths grades are completely non-overlapping.
d) Depending on the standard deviation of maths grades, any of the other options could be
correct
B
139
when checking whether your data meet the assumptions for an independent-samples t-test, should you run a shapiro-wilk on each variable independently or for the whole thing?
each one individually
140
You start your Honours project, and your new supervisor hands you an old dataset from
several years ago to analyse. The supervisor says that they did not find support for the
original hypothesis, but adds "This cost us a lot of time and money to collect. There's got to
be something here we can salvage because it's a cool data set." They encourage you to run a
series of additional analyses on the data.
What would be the BEST thing to do, to avoid questionable research practices?
a) Re-run the experiment, and re-test for the original hypothesis.
b) If you find something interesting in the new analyses, pre-register a new experiment with
the new hypothesis and analysis plan.
c) If you find something interesting in the new analyses, write and publish a paper reporting
the new finding.
d) Re-run the original analyses, using non-parametric statistical tests
b- if there is something in the data that has piqued interest you can use it as a start for a new study
141
Which of the following elements tends to be SHARED between qualitative and quantitative
research methods?
a) The use of numerical data.
b) The goal of being impartial and objective as a researcher.
c) The use of inductive and deductive reasoning.
d) The use of flexible methods that can be shifted in response to the current context
c - both use reasoning
142
Walter Benjamin referred to the “dialogical image” – what does this phrase refer to?
That the meaning of an image is negotiated between the image and the person viewing it
143
Photographs imitate and reflect their creator’s life, environment, and worldview. What is a
term for this?
mimetic - to echo something
144
the only kind of reasoning which is thought to
establish certainty Is...
deductive
145
In ______reasoning, you start with an assumption and then make observations or rational thoughts to validate or refute the assumption.
Deductive
146
a kindergarten teacher has struggled to hold the attention of her class throughout the morning. She tries adding an extra five-minute activity break one hour after school starts. After a week of mood improvements and attention gains, she decides to permanently add the extra activity break
what kind of reasoning is this?
inductive
Inductive reasoning begins with observations that are specific and limited in scope, and proceeds to a generalized conclusion that is likely, but not certain, in light of accumulated evidence.
147
salespeople may use this type of reasoning when they receive a short correspondence from a client, asking them to reply quickly about an issue. When the client doesn't give enough information to understand before responding, a salesperson can use abductive reasoning to narrow down possible concerns. It's sometimes better to prepare answers for a few best guesses.
what kind of reasoning is this?
abductive
Abductive reasoning typically begins with an incomplete set of observations and proceeds to the likeliest possible explanation for the set. Abductive reasoning yields the kind of daily decision-making that does its best with the information at hand, which often is incomplete.
148
Whakawhanaungatanga refers to what concept
the creation of RELATIONAL space
149
What are three assumptions that are often implicit in the scientific method that has emerged
from the European positivist/post-positivist tradition?
a) Universalism; Holism; Essentialism
b) Subjectivism; Reductionism; Essentialism
c) Universalism; Reductionism; Essentialism
d) Holism; Rationalism; Reductionism
C
150
In Mana Moana “fala” is conceptualised as
The shared space of the interpersonal interactions
151
What is the purpose of running post-hoc follow-up tests after a factorial ANOVA?
To find out which specific group means are different from one another.
152
You are interested in whether some universities are better at preparing students for employment than others. You have data from five universities on the proportion of recent graduates who are currently employed. However, you are worried that differences in the social or economic family backgrounds of the students who attend different universities could also result in employment differences. What could you do?
Measure one or more variables capturing the socio-economic background of students, and use them as additional outcome measures in a MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance). This will estimate the effect of university on employment, controlling for socio-economic background.
A one-way ANOVA can tell you whether there are differences in graduate employment across different universities, but there is nothing you can do to take students’ socio-economic background into account.
The socio-economic background of students is a potential confound, so there is no way to tell what effect choice of university has on future employment.
Measure one or more variables capturing the socio-economic background of students, and use them as covariates in an ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance). This will estimate the effect of university on employment, controlling for socio-economic background.
Measure one or more variables capturing the socio-economic background of students, and use them as covariates in an ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance). This will estimate the effect of university on employment, controlling for socio-economic background.
