Psych 306 (research/design)

Question 1

posti, crit etc x5

What are the main research paradigms?

Answer 1

Positivism, post-positivism, pragmatasim, critical theory, interpretivism, constructivism

Question 2

ologys

What are the main elements that make up a research paradigm?

Answer 2

Ontology (nature of reality), epistemology (nature of knowledge), axiology (values), methodology (ways to go about research) methods (specific methods used)

Question 3

What are the distinctions between theoretical constructs, measures, and variables?

Answer 3

Theoretical constructs are abstract concepts the things you are trying to take a measurement of., measures are specific tools/method used to make the observations, to assess them, and variables are the operationalised versions used in research

Question 4

What are relational ethics?

Answer 4

involves establishing ethical relationships with participants, emphasising mutual respect and acknowledging power dynamics

Question 5

What is photo elicitation?

Answer 5

a research method used to prompt discussions, and gather insights, often enhancing qualitative data

Question 6

What is transformative praxis(theory)?

Answer 6

Transformational praxis involves applying theory to action in a way that foster positive social change, combining reflection and practical engagement

Question 7

To discover generalisable laws goverering the bran and behaviour would be an example of which two axiology (values)

Answer 7

positivist and post positivist

Question 8

To understand and describe the human experience would come under what axiology?

Answer 8

constructivist/interpretivist

Question 9

to destroy myths and empower people to change society would come under what axiology?

Answer 9

critical theorist

Question 10

what is Axiology

Answer 10

what do we value? why are we doing this In the first place

Question 11

What does onotology ask?

Answer 11

whats out there to know? what exists In reality?

Question 12

what and how can we know about something is a what-ology

Answer 12

epistemology

Question 13

What is the methodology?

Answer 13

how can we go about acquiring the knowledge? (overall research approach)

Question 14

What are ethics?

Answer 14

Ethics refers to a set of certain aspirational moral values and principles that are intended to guide ethical conduct

Question 15

what is a code of ethics

Answer 15

A code of ethics represents the application of ethical principles and values which are prescribed in concrete and forcible behavioural standards for ethical action

Question 16

Deontology comes from which philosopher?

Answer 16

Kant

Question 17

Killing one to save five would be an example of which ethic?

Answer 17

consequentialism

Question 18

this code was first modern effort for an international effort to protect research participants

Answer 18

The nuremberg code 1947

Question 19

a milestone document in the history of human rights. Drafted
by representatives with different legal and cultural
backgrounds from all regions of the world, sets out
fundamental universal human rights

Answer 19

the universal declaration of human rights

Question 20

a statement of ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects, including research on identifiable human material and data.

Answer 20

the declaration of helsinki

Question 21

A variable that we think is a cause is known as an?

Answer 21

independant variable

Question 22

A variable that we think is an effect is called a
__________ variable because the value of this variable depends on the cause

Answer 22

dependant

Question 23

Categorical variable - discrete- bus/train/car are examples of what type of variable?

Answer 23

nominal variable

Question 24

A categorical variable is one that names distinct entities. In its simplest
form it names just two distinct types of things, for example male or female. This is known
as a?

Answer 24

binary variable

Question 25

When
categories are ORDered, the variable is known as an ____ variable. this data tell us
not only that things have occurred, but also the order in which they occurred. However,
these data tell us nothing about the differences between values

Answer 25

Ordinal variable

Question 26

A ________ variable is one that gives us a score for each entity and can
take on any value on the measurement scale that we are using.

Answer 26

continuous

Question 27

What 3 things have to be present to infercause and effect?

Answer 27

(1) cause and
effect must occur close together in time (contiguity);
(2) the cause must
occur before an effect does; and
(3) the effect should never occur without the presence of the cause.

Question 28

Binary nominal and ordinal are what scale of measurement?

Answer 28

categorical

Question 29

Interval and ratio are what scale of measurement?

Answer 29

quantitative

Question 30

Whats a confounding factor?

Answer 30

a variable that is related to one or more of the variables - it may falsely demonstrate a apparent association between the two factors -

Question 31

Whats the difference between “between subjects design and within subjects?

Answer 31

between subjects - randomly allocated to either condition - within subjects - participants do both experiments

Question 32

the two main ways in which a distribution can deviate from normal:

Answer 32

(1) lack of
symmetry (called skew) and (2) pointyness (called kurtosis

Question 33

a tall and pointy distrubition is know as what?

Answer 33

Positive kurtosis / Leptokurtic

Question 34

A low and long distrubition is known as?

Answer 34

negative kurtosis/Platykurti

Question 35

What are practice effects?

Answer 35

Participants may perform differently in the second condition because
of familiarity with the experimental situation and/or the measures being used.

Question 36

what are boredom effects

Answer 36

Participants may perform differently in the second condition because
they are tired or bored from having completed the first condition.

Question 37

What is the mode?

Answer 37

the most commonly reported numbera

Question 38

what is the median?

Answer 38

the middle numer

Question 39

what is the mean?

Answer 39

the center of mass - all all the numbers then divide by the amount of numbers reported

Question 40

most of the data falls between +/- 1 what?

Answer 40

SD

Question 41

how do you find the range

Answer 41

biggest no - smallest

Question 42

What are the 3 points to be able to confer cause and effect

Answer 42

(1) cause and effect must occur close together in time (contiguity);
(2) the cause must occur before an effect does; and (3) the effect should never occur without the presence of the cause.

Question 43

where does the tail point in a negative skew?

Answer 43

the small end/ the corner

Question 44

where does the tail point in a positive skew?

Answer 44

to the higher end (right)

Question 45

a crude measure of the relationship between variable is called the what?

Answer 45

covariance

Question 46

the correlation coefficient has to lie between?

Answer 46

-1 and 1

Question 47

A coefficient of +1 indicates what?

Answer 47

a perfect positive relationship

Question 48

a coefficient of -1 indicates what?

Answer 48

a perfect negative relationship

Question 49

a coefficient of 0 indicates?

Answer 49

no linear relationshipw

Question 50

whats the third variable problem?

Answer 50

that even if two variables are related, we cannot say that causation = correlation, that there is the possibility of a third unmeasurable variable we are missing

Question 51

-Ology
what is the true or real, the nature of reality

asks: what is existence and what is the nature of existence

Answer 51

Ontology

Question 52

-ology
the nature of knowledge, methods of gaining knowledge

asks; what do you know and how do you know it?

Answer 52

epistemology

Question 53

What’s an example of a theoretical
construct operationalised as
measurable variable?

Answer 53

For example, a personality dimension, such as neuroticism, might be described as a theoretical construct measurable by means of a questionnaire

Question 54

What are the main steps in NHST NullHypoStandardTesting and in
what order?

Answer 54

NHST is a method of statistical inference by which an experimental factor is tested against a hypothesis of no effect or no relationship based on a given observation.

Question 55

What does it mean if a test statistic is
within the critical region of a sampling
distribution?

Answer 55

A critical region, also known as the rejection region, is a set of values for the test statistic for which the null hypothesis is rejected. i.e. if the observed test statistic is in the critical region then we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.

Question 56

What sort of data and research
question do you use a chi-squared
goodness of fit test for?

Is the fit good to what we think?

Answer 56

Do the frequencies of these groups
differ from those expected under
H0?

Research Q: Can a person mentally simulate randomness,
e.g. picking a card at random?
Study design: One participant imagines picking a random
card for 200 trials; researcher records suit of card

Question 57

What sort of data and research
question do you use a chi-squared
test of independance for?

Answer 57

Is there an association between
these two variables (do the
frequencies within one variable
depend on the levels of the other)?

Research Q: Do people in different suburbs have different
political preferences?
Study design: 200 people in each of three suburbs are
polled on their two-party preference (National vs Labour)

Question 58

Whats the difference between the Chi goodness of fit and the test of independence?

Answer 58

There are two types of Pearson’s chi-square tests: The chi-square goodness of fit test is used to test whether the frequency distribution of a categorical variable is different from your expectations. The chi-square test of independence is used to test whether two categorical variables are related to each other.

Question 59

● What’s the difference between a main
effect and an interaction, and how do
you tell from a plot which is present?

Answer 59

A main effect is the effect one independent variable has on the dependent variable without taking other independent variables into account. An interaction is the effect one independent variable has on another independent variable, and how that effect translates to the dependent variable.

If the line is horizontal, in other words, parallel to the x-axis, then there is no main effect exists. The response mean is the same across all factor levels.
Similarly, if the line is not horizontal, then the main effect exists. In other words, the response mean is not the same across all factor levels. The slope determines the magnitude of the main effect.

A “main effect” is the effect of one of your independent variables on the dependent
variable, ignoring the effects of all other independent variables.
A statistical interaction occurs when the effect of one independent variable on the
dependent variable changes depending on the level of another independent variable. In our
current design, this is equivalent to asking whether the effect of teacher expectations changes
depending on the age of student.

** there is a main effect if the means of both lines do not match up i.e. line a& line B mean are different means main effect of AB
If 1 and 2 do no meet up its 1 and 2 main effect
if the difference in the scores of a1 and a 2 is like 25 but b1 and b2 is 69 there is an interaction

Question 60

If your test has low statistical power, what
does that mean

Answer 60

Is the test has low statistical power it means that the probability of getting a true positive is low - increase sample size

Statistical power, or sensitivity, is the likelihood of a significance test detecting an effect when there actually is one.

A true effect is a real, non-zero relationship between variables in a population. An effect is usually indicated by a real difference between groups or a correlation between variables.

High power in a study indicates a large chance of a test detecting a true effect. Low power means that your test only has a small chance of detecting a true effect or that the results are likely to be distorted by random and systematic error.

Power is mainly influenced by sample size, effect size, and significance level. A power analysis can be used to determine the necessary sample size for a study.

Question 61

What are the 5 ways to increase statistical power?
1. increase…
2. increase…
3. increase…
4. Reduce _____ Error
5. Tails

Answer 61

Increase the effect size. To increase the expected effect in an experiment, you could manipulate your independent variable more widely (e.g., spending 1 hour instead of 10 minutes in nature) to increase the effect on the dependent variable (stress level). This may not always be possible because there are limits to how much the outcomes in an experiment may vary.

Increase sample size. Based on sample size calculations, you may have room to increase your sample size while still meaningfully improving power. But there is a point at which increasing your sample size may not yield high enough benefits.

Increase the significance level. While this makes a test more sensitive to detecting true effects, it also increases the risk of making a Type I error.

Reduce measurement error. Increasing the precision and accuracy of your measurement devices and procedures reduces variability, improving reliability and power. Using multiple measures or methods, known as triangulation, can also help reduce systematic research bias.

Use a one-tailed test instead of a two-tailed test. When using a t test or z tests, a one-tailed test has higher power. However, a one-tailed test should only be used when there’s a strong reason to expect an effect in a specific direction (e.g., one mean score will be higher than the other), because it won’t be able to detect an effect in the other direction. In contrast, a two-tailed test is able to detect an effect in either direction.

Question 62

Which 3 pieces of information should you
report from the R output for a t test?

Answer 62

t- stat, df. p value

descriptive statistics: mean and standard
deviation
n.s or significant p value and degrees of freedom

Question 63

What is the “gist” of what the formula for
variance tells us? How about the F value?

Answer 63

Variance: Variance measures the average squared deviation of each number from the mean of the data set. It tells us how much the numbers in a data set differ from the mean value. A higher variance indicates that the data points are spread out more widely around the mean, while a lower variance indicates that the data points are closer to the mean.

F-value: The F-value is used in the context of an ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) test. It compares the variance between different groups to the variance within the groups. The F-value is calculated as the ratio of the variance between the groups to the variance within the groups. A higher F-value suggests that there is more variance between the groups than within the groups, indicating that at least one group mean is significantly different from the others. This is used to determine if the observed differences between group means are statistically significant.

Question 64

When do you use A parametric vs non-parametric test?

Answer 64

Use Parametric Tests when:

The data is normally distributed or nearly so.
The sample size is large enough to justify the normality assumption (Central Limit Theorem).
The data is measured on an interval or ratio scale.

Scale: Parametric tests require data to be measured on an interval or ratio scale.

Use Non-Parametric Tests when:

The data does not meet the normality assumption.
The sample size is small.
The data is ordinal or nominal.
The data has outliers or is skewed.
In summary, the choice between parametric and non-parametric tests depends on the nature of your data and whether the assumptions required for parametric tests are satisfied.

Scale: Non-parametric tests can be used with ordinal data or data that does not meet the assumptions of parametric tests (e.g., nominal data or data that is not normally distributed).

Question 65

When do you use a two-sided vs one-sided
test? Which is stronger

Answer 65

Use a 2 sided when you are interested in deviations that go either way

use a one sided if you have a specific direction in your hypothesis - one sided is stronger

Question 66

What does the confidence interval tell you? use the words true population value

Answer 66

a range within which
the true population
value falls 95% of the
time
○ (i.e. if you collect 100
samples and
calculate CIs, 95% of
those CIs contain the
true mean)

Question 67

Why do some tests require follow-ups?

Answer 67

Identifying Specific Differences
Post-Hoc Tests: After conducting an omnibus test like ANOVA, which can tell you that there are significant differences among group means, follow-up post-hoc tests (e.g., Tukey’s HSD, Bonferroni correction) are needed to determine exactly which groups differ from each other.
Multiple Comparisons: These tests help control for the family-wise error rate when making multiple pairwise comparisons, ensuring that the overall Type I error rate is kept at an acceptable level.

Further Investigation of Significant Findings - effect size and CI.

Question 68

-What does Bayes Rule allow us to figure
out, in a research setting?

Answer 68

Bayes’ Rule tells you how to calculate a conditional probability with information you already have.

Question 69

When you look at a graph showing the
prior, likelihood, and posterior, what
does each curve tell you? What is on the
x and y axes of the graph?

θ -theta, is the unknown parameter, and x denotes data.

Answer 69

Prior Curve: Shows your initial beliefs about the parameter.
Likelihood Curve: Shows how likely the observed data is for different parameter values.
Posterior Curve: Shows your updated beliefs about the parameter after considering the data.

he x-axis would range from 0 to 1, representing all possible values of
𝜃
θ.
The y-axis would show the probability density for the prior and posterior, and the likelihood for each value of
𝜃
θ.

Question 70

What does a Bayes Factor tell us? What
do we conclude if the BF is very large?
Very small? Exactly 1?

Answer 70

We can escape this whole confusing mess of the traditional t-test by calculating a Bayes Factor rather than a p value. A Bayes Factor is a number that tells us how likely it is there’s a difference between groups

For example, a Bayes Factor of 10 means it’s ten times more likely there is a difference than there isn’t.

A Bayes Factor less than 1 is also informative. For example, a Bayes Factor of 0.1 (1/10) tells you it’s ten times more likely that there isn’t a difference than there is.

A Bayes Factor of exactly 1 tells you that the presence or absence of a difference is equally likely.

All the above assumes that, before you collected the data, you thought the presence or absence of a difference were equally likely outcomes. If that is not the case, see more on Bayes Factors.

Question 71

● What are the core differences between
Bayesian and frequentist methods?

Answer 71

the frequentist approach assigns probabilities to data, not to hypotheses, whereas the Bayesian approach assigns probabilities to hypotheses. Furthermore, Bayesian models incorporate prior knowledge into the analysis, updating hypotheses probabilities as more data become available.

What is the main difference?
Frequentist: the parameter is a fixed quantity (no probability about it)
Bayesian: the parameter is a random variable (no right answer)

Question 72

What are “p-hacking” and “HARKing”? What
are some of the problems with
“questionable research practices”?

Answer 72

P-hacking is also known as data dredging, data fishing, and data snooping. P hacking is the manipulation of data analysis until it produces statistically significant results, compromising the truthfulness of the findings.

HARKing- Hypothesizing after the results are known refers to the practice of presenting unexpected findings as a priori hypotheses or failing to report empirically unsupported hypotheses that were derived a priori and guided the research.

Question 73

How do questionable research practices
affect the rates of false positive, true
positive, false negative, and true negative
results in the scientific literature?

Answer 73

Makes it hard to replicate the studies.
increases false positives and underreporting of negatives

QRPs distort the scientific literature by increasing false positives, potentially overshadowing true positives, and contributing to the underreporting of false negatives and true negatives. This leads to a skewed understanding of research findings and undermines the reliability and credibility of scientific research. Addressing QRPs through more rigorous methodologies, transparency, and ethical research practices is crucial to improving the accuracy and integrity of scientific literature.

Question 74

● What is pre-registration and how does it
help?

Answer 74

Pre-registration is the practice of deciding your research and analysis plan prior to starting your study and sharing it publicly, like submitting it to a registry.

Pre-registering may prevent researchers from overfitting to their data or, in other words, making analysis decisions that are too specific to a particular sample or study. Pre-registering may also prevent the use of questionable research practices, like p-hacking, cherry picking, or hypothesizing after results are known (sometimes called “HARKing”). Pre-registering can also increase the transparency and rigor of research and evaluation, which, in turn, may help to bolster public confidence in the results of federally funded research and evaluation.

Question 75

What factors decide whether a
qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
approach might be best?

Answer 75

Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or hypothesis) Use qualitative research if you want to understand something (concepts, thoughts, experiences)

Research question, time and resources, nature of data

Question 76

What are the main differences between
positivist, post-positivist, constructivist,
and critical theorist approaches to
research?

Answer 76

the two positivist views have single objective realities, but post acknowledges there can be errors, in normal, everything is truth and exact.

constructivist - multiple realities, socially constructed, individual knowledge
critical - knowledge is between the individual and groups, multiple realities, shaped by social, political, cultural values

Question 77

What is thematic analysis, and what are
the main steps to conduct it?

Answer 77

Thematic analysis is the process of identifying patterns or themes within qualitative data
There are various approaches to conducting thematic analysis, but the most common form follows a six-step process: familiarization, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing up.

• Minimally describes and organises the
  data - intepretative focus
• Small codes > large theme
  ⚬ Theme = pattern across the dataset
  ⚬ Organised around a central concept
  ⚬ Meaningful to research question
• Researcher is an active part of the
  analysis process
• Flexible but structured

Question 78

What is visual qualitative research?

Answer 78

a qualitative research methodology that relies on artistic mediums to produce and represent knowledge.

Question 79

Who created photovoice and what theory was it based off?

Answer 79

Caroline Wang -Photovoice is an established method developed initially by health promotion researchers (Wang and Burris, 1997).

Feminist theory

Question 80

What are the “four Rs” of photo
elicitation research, - 4 - ‘res’

Answer 80

researcher found visual data - generated/collected by the researcher
Researcher created visual data - MADE by the researcher
respondent (participant) generated data - participant finds/generates
representation and visualisation of data

Question 81

This ‘ology’ asks: What is existance? and what is the nature of existence?

Answer 81

Ontology

Question 82

This ‘ology’ asks : What do you know? and how do you know it?

Answer 82

Epistemology

Question 83

What are some considerations for acquiring data in Qualitative research

Answer 83

Form of data (objects, words, images)
* Sampling
⚬ Specific (i.e. not representative)
⚬ Opportunistic/ snowballing
⚬ Purposive
* Sample size
* Ethics
⚬ Confidentiality, anonymity, relationality, power
* Researcher/ participant relations
* Researchers’ roles in the research (ownership, how active, etc

Question 84

Talanoa is a pacific research method that involves what?

Answer 84

“to talk about nothing in particular” - free open-ended, intersubjective

Question 85

What is a “walk-along” or “go-along”
interview, and when might a researcher
use this method?

Answer 85

just walking around with participant, show from their perspective -Useful for studying health issues of a community within a local area
imaginative journeys take up beyond street life

Question 86

a Researcher introduces visual materials for discussion is an example of what ‘R’

Answer 86

Researcher found visual data
Visual materials are used to elicit discussion in one-on-one semi-structured interviews,
household interviews, paired interviews, focus groups etc
* Want to understand how an issue affects a community, images provide a bridge

Question 87

How visual materials are presented in research is an example of which ‘r’

Answer 87

Representation and visualisation of ‘data’

Question 88

In this R- The researcher is often a participant and/or member of the same community participating
in the research study
* Examples include autoethnographic, autobiographical, autophotography et

Answer 88

Researcher CREATED visual data

Question 89

What does it mean to ‘Democratise’ the method?

Answer 89

1. Introduce a democratic system or
   democratic principles to.
   * “public institutions need to be
   democratised“ e.g. housing policy
2. Make (something) accessible to
   everyone.
   * “mass production has not
   democratised fashion“
   * How does this apply to research?
   12

Question 90

How does the analysis of images in
visual qualitative research differ from
the analysis of text in thematic analysis?

Answer 90

thematic analysis was developed for coding
linguistic data and carries the assumption that meaning is
encoded into texts and can be decoded through set coding
procedures that fragment and decontextualize experience.

The problem with TA is that it assumes that the meaning is
encoded in the image and you just have to get more and
more sophisticated at ‘reading’ or describing the image

A pivotal aspect of PE is not so much studying the images
as analysing how participants respond to them, attributing
social and personal meanings and values (

Question 91

What five key concepts guide photo
elicitation projects?
1. Images _____
2. Pictures can ______
3. Community members ought to ________
4. The process requires that from the outset _____
5. Photovoice emphasizes _________

Answer 91

1. Images teach
2. Pictures can influence policy
3. Community members ought to participate in creating and defining the images that shape policy
4. The process requires that from the outset planners
   bring policy makers and other influential people to the
   table to serve as an audience
5. Photovoice emphasizes individual and community
   action

Question 92

What five steps are involved in analysing the
images in a photo elicitation project?

1. Identify the____________
2. Grid, plot & d___
3. Key c_______, e____ & d___
4. Ordering _____, L___ & constructing ___ _____
5. I___ & w_____

Answer 92

1. Identify the topic & scope of data
2. Grid, plot & defamilizarize
3. Key categories, examples & discrepancies
4. Ordering categories, linking & constructing new
   story
5. Interpretation & writing

Question 93

What are the “levels of mass
communication” and in what ways do
journalism and visual qualitative research
overlap?

Answer 93

Production - how stories emerge
Representation - how news items play out
reception - how media is negotiated by audience

They all involve collecting, organizing, describing and interpretation of data

Question 94

What would be better than just Thematic analysis for visual data and why?

Answer 94

Barthes (1981) stresses the POLYSEMIC quality of images, i.e.
the fact that they have many potential meanings and
interpretations.
* Relates to Walter Benjamin’s notion of the dialogical
image= the meaning of a visual image is negotiated
between the actual image and the
reader/viewer/researcher.
* In photo-elicitation research we want to know and confirm
what the participant is intending in the production of their
image, so we enter into dialogue –
* Why did they take that image? What is the story being
elicited?

Question 95

What are the key historical documents
laying the foundation for research
ethics? When were they each written,
and what key contributions did each of
them make?

Answer 95

The Nuremberg Code is a set of ethical principles essential for conducting human experimentation and research, formulated in response to the inhumane experiments conducted during World War II. Established in 1947 as part of the verdict in the Nuremberg Trials, which prosecuted Nazi war criminals, the Code is foundational to modern bioethics and research ethics. Voluntary/fruitful for society/unnecessary suffering/no death of disabling injury/risk proportional to humanitarian importance

Nuremberg INFLUENCED - Helsinki declaration and Review boards

The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), adopted by the General Assembly in 2007, provides a comprehensive framework of rights for indigenous peoples. It addresses various aspects of their lives, including cultural integrity, land rights, and self-determination. In the context of research, UNDRIP places a strong emphasis on protecting the rights and interests of indigenous peoples.

free,prior, informed consent/participation in decision making/ protection of heritage/equality

Question 96

What does “relational ethics” refer to,
and what concepts and frameworks
does it draw from?

Answer 96

Relational ethics critical - embraces Māori ideal of transformative
praxis (Pihama & Southey, 2015) –
* Research is conducted with expectations that it benefits
people with whom we work in close proximity
* E.g research with NOT on people

Approach applied at personal, service & structural levels
* (1) Personal case workshops with service providers to inform their
work with clients
* (2) Embedding humane cultural responses by supporting housing
& social services development, including establishing transitional
housing facility for men in TGA (left image). Involves working
through moments of openness & communing with one another.
* (3) City Councils, Judges & policy forums. Iinitiatives to promote
understanding and more dynamic and person-centered responses

Question 97

What are the Te Ara Tika guidelines for
Māori research ethics, and what are
their core principles?

Answer 97

Framework for addressing maori ethical issues within the context of decision making by ethics committee members

Maori ethical framework

- Tiki (research design)
- Mana- justice and equity
- Whakapapa - relationships
- Manaakitange - culture and social responsibility Move beyond consultation to engage with positively and substantially with Maori

Question 98

What are the different levels of
engagement with Māori that research
may fall under in Aotearoa NZ?

Answer 98

1. research with no specific Maori component
2. Research specifically relevant to maori
3. research involving maori
4. Maori centered research
5. Kaupapa maori research

Question 99

What is Vision Mātauranga, what are the
names for the “four pillars” it rests on, and
what do they each mean?

Answer 99

Science policy framework in NZ intergrating western science with maaturanga maori that are only possible with collaboration between the two
Vision Mātauranga aims to unlock the innovation and science
potential of Māori knowledge, resources, and people for the
environmental, economic, social and cultural benefit of Aotearoa

Partnership - participation and protection (The hut with 4 pillars )
Martauranga (exploring indigenous knowledge and research)
Indigenous innovation, (innnovation from maori knowledge)
hauora and oranga (health and welbeing)
Taio (sustanibility)

Question 100

What is Kaupapa Māori research?

Answer 100

Gives full recognition to Māori cultural values and systems
* Is a strategic position that challenges dominant Pākehā constructions of research
* Determines the assumptions, values, key ideas and priorities of the research
* Ensures that Māori maintain conceptual, methodological and interpretive control over the research
* Is based on a philosophy that guides Māori research and ensures that Māori protocol will be followed during research
processes

Kaupapa maori is more than a form of resistance it is the actualisation of tino rangatiratanga; the fundamental basis by which maori tikanga can be used to inform policy, educational and research practice and the health and wellbeing of maori

Raises questions about how youre constructing the truth
Kaupapa Māori is a non-deficit approach with the
potential to avoid superficial issues and examine
the deeper underlying issues including structural
inequities
From inception to publication and beyone - its not just a short term relationship

Question 101

What are some of the assumptions of
the traditional Western scientific
worldview, and how might they be
ill-suited to research in NZ and other
Pacific contexts?

Question 102

What research paradigms and
methodological approaches might be
better suited?

Answer 102

There has been some contention among
academics, in that the scrutiny placed on
kaupapa Māori theory, reminds one of the
power of colonisation. In particular, Māori
academics often view qualitative methods
as being highly compatible with Kaupapa
Māori Research (Barnes, 2000; Smith, 2009;
Smith, 2016). Qualitative methods are
designed in a way which allows for the
exploring of personal lifeworld’s (Braun,
Clarke & Terry, 2014)
The flexibility within
qualitative methods compliments Kaupapa
Māori Theory, an example of this is the
ability to undertake interviews in a setting
the collaborator feels comfortable.

Question 103

What are some of the upsides and
downsides of creative methods in
research?

Answer 103

Creativity is a subjective expression, they can be evocative, art is accessible, and can explore complex themes without words and can be spirtiual

Question 104

What are pūrākau are how have they
been used in Kaupapa Māori research?

Answer 104

Purakau is one of the many narrative forms for maori to consolidate and construct contextual information - stories necessary for growth, they’re relational and share intergenerational wisdom

storywork as a method - presents opportunities to think about re-storying experiences

Question 105

What is the Mana Moana framework, who
was it established by, and what does it seek
to do?

Answer 105

Dr. karla mila - The interface between cultural understandings: Negotiating new spaces for Pacific
mental health by Karlo Mila-Schaaf Maui Hudson (2009)
“The “negotiated space” is a place of purposive re-encounter, reconstructing and re-
balancing of ideas and values in complementary realignments that have resonance
for Pacific peoples living in Western oriented societies
This is purposive, open and creative space which allows tensions and conflicts
to be understood, sometimes mediated but ideally always approached constructively

Question 106

What are some of the concepts common to
many Pacific languages that Mana Moana
identifies, and what do they each mean?

Answer 106

The core focus of Mana Moana is the vitalisation and mobilisation of indigenous
Pasifika language, knowledge, values, culture, ways of knowing and viewing the
world. The Mana Moana Experience operates on the understanding that Pasifika
ancestral cultural resources are fundamental and essential for optimal
contemporary living and leadership.

Principals
Arofa - love, empathy, respect
Mana- integrity
Kaitiaki - cultural integrity
Tupu- Creative, innovative

Question 107

What is Kaupapa Māori research? What are
the names for the principles it rests on, and
what do they each mean?

Answer 107

Tino Rangatiratanga – The Principle of Self-Determination.
Allows Māori to control their own culture, aspirations and
destiny

• Taonga Tuku Iho – The Principle of Cultural Aspiration.
  Emphasises the validity of Māori ways of knowing, doing
  and understanding the world
• Ako Māori – The Principle of Culturally Preferred Pedagogy.
  Teaching and learning practices that are preferred by Māori
• Te Tiriti o Waitangi – The Principle of the Treaty of
  Waitangi. Critically analyse relationships, challenge the
  status quo and affirm Māori rights through te Tiriti

Kia piki ake i ngā raruraru o te kainga – The Principle
of Socio-Economic Mediation. KMR provides positive
benefit to Māori communities overcoming hardship

Whānau – The Principle of Extended Family Structure.
Relationships are central and the researcher has
ongoing relationship with research stakeholders

Kaupapa – The Principle of Collective Philosophy. The
research contributes to the community’s aspirations
and purpose

Āta – The Principle of Growing Respectful
Relationships. Building and nurturing relationships
and wellbeing when engaging with Māori

Question 108

What ‘ology does this represent? Wha values guide research?
Re la t io ns h ip s
m a t t e r b e c a u s e
t h e y a re w h a t
m a ke u s ‘u s ‘

Answer 108

Axiology

Question 109

The world is interconnected and we have a place in the world is a statement of what Ology

Answer 109

Ontology

Question 110

Wht is knowledge? - We can understand our place in the world by how we relate to others (people places things) - Is an example of what ology?

Answer 110

Epistemology

Question 111

The ‘scientific method’ is a result of which 2 paradigms

Answer 111

post-positivist and positivist

Question 112

to understand how people construct/shape themselves is an example of what paradigm

Answer 112

Critical theory

Question 113

In terms of the Chi squared tests - what direction do they follow?

Answer 113

Always non-directional

Question 114

Performing muliple tests ie t-tests on 10 variables increases chances of false positive

To counter this we need to establish a more consertive pvalue
This is called the _________ ________ & changes 0.05 to ____.___ – Divide it by the amount of tests youre running

Answer 114

Bonferroni correction

0.005

Question 115

What are the three unbiased estimators?

Answer 115

Samples statistics that can be used to estimate a population parameter include the sample mean, proportion, and standard deviation. These are the three unbiased estimators.

Question 116

What are biased and unbiased estimators?

Answer 116

A biased estimator is one that deviates from the true population value. An unbiased estimator is one that does not deviate from the true population parameter.

Question 117

what is the formula for experimental probability?

Answer 117

of favourable outcomes so far, / total outcomes already

Question 118

What are the three known parameters for conditional probability? and what do they stand for?

Answer 118

• Sensitivity is the probability a test will be positive among those with the disease
  Covid:73% sensitivity = P(test+s|sick)=73%
  • Specificity is the fraction of those without the disease who will have a neg result

Don’t have covid: 99% = 99% P(test-|healthy = 99%)

Covid prevalence - lets assume 1%

Sensitivity and specificity covary - most prefer betting correct neg result over true positive.

Question 119

Whats the difference between covarience and correlation?

Answer 119

Covariance is when two variables vary with each other, whereas Correlation is when the change in one variable results in the change in another variable.

Covariance: This measures how two variables change together.

Positive covariance: Both variables tend to increase or decrease together.
Negative covariance: The variables tend to move in opposite directions.
Zero covariance: The variables do not relate to each other.
Correlation: This describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to 1.

Correlation of -1: Perfect negative correlation; as one variable increases, the other decreases.
Correlation of 1: Perfect positive correlation; as one variable increases, the other also increases.
Correlation of 0: No relationship between the variables.

Question 120

Sample mean is
already an biased/unbiased
estimate

Answer 120

Unbiased

Question 121

True or false: Both F and t measure the variability between groups, compared to the overall variability in
the data

Answer 121

true

Question 122

Retaining the null = True ___ or false _____
Rejecting the null = True_____ or False _____

Answer 122

Retaining the null = negative
Rejecting the null = Positive

Question 123

sample SD is a biased/unbiased estimate?

Answer 123

biased but is fixed with a minor correction

Question 124

What is the test statistic for a correlation test? (2 items)

Answer 124

t value corresponding to the
observed correlation value r

“A two-tailed correlation test with
significance level α = 0.05 found
no evidence for a relationship
between a student’s score on Quiz
1 and their score on Quiz 2
(r(48) = .22, p = .118)

Question 125

What statistical test would this fall under? Research Q: Do children in multilingual homes have larger or smaller vocabularies than average for their age? Study design: Based on prior research we believe the average two year old knows 300 words. We now estimate vocab size for a random sample of 60 two-year-olds from multilingual homes. Null hyp. H0
: Mean vocab size = 300
Alternative hyp. H1
: Mean vocab size ≠ 300

Answer 125

one-sample T test

• testing one variable against the mean

Question 126

What is the correct statistical test? Research Q: Is there a difference in vocabulary size between children from monolingual vs multilingual homes? Study design: We estimate the vocabulary size in two random groups of 60 two-year-olds, one group from multilingual homes and the other from monolingual. Null hyp. H0
: Meanmono
= Meanmulti
Alternative hyp. H1
: Meanmono
≠ Meanmulti

Answer 126

Independent samples

Question 127

What does the F value tell us?

Answer 127

The F value summarises how large
the between-group differences
are compared to the within-group
ones

Like the chi2 test it can only be positive

Question 128

How can Bayes’ theorem be used in psychology research?

Answer 128

it can be used to evaluate the strength of evidence for
different hypotheses

Question 129

What is the law of large numbers and how is it different to central limit theorm?

Answer 129

Law of large - as the sample size grows, its mean get closer to the true average of the population

Central limit theorom - says a sampling distribution of the mean will always be normally distributed as long as the sample Is large enough

Question 130

An online study collects the following variables:
 (i) “gender_identity”, which participants type into a blank text response
 (ii) “favourite_movie”, which participants select from a list of 100 options
 (iii) “spatial_reasoning_score”, which is a numeric value from 0-100, measuring the
participants’ performance on a series of spatial reasoning tasks (e.g. mental rotation and
shape-matching)
What is the type of each variable?
a) (i) categorical nominal; (ii) categorical ordinal; (iii) categorical ordinal
b) (i) categorical binary; (ii) continuous; (iii) continuous
c) (i) continuous; (ii) categorial nominal; (iii) continuous
d) (i) categorical nominal; (ii) categorical nominal; (iii) continuous

Answer 130

d) (i) categorical nominal; (ii) categorical nominal; (iii) continuous

Question 131

Why is it important to plot RAW data?

Answer 131

Because you may miss key patterns in the data if you just look at the summary data- sd, m etc

Question 132

What is the best
explanation for why the formula includes a “square root” step?

a) To obtain an unbiased estimate of the population variability, based on the sample
variability
b) To add up the deviations from the mean across all datapoints
c) To end up with a positive measure of how much each datapoint deviates from the mean
d) To end up with a measure of variability that is in the same units as the original
measurements

Answer 132

D - we need them all in the same units

Question 133

A magician claims to have a magical coin that comes up heads more often than it does tails.
A skeptical audience member decides to use statistics to test their claim. They plan to do a
binomial test (not covered in lectures), with the following hypotheses:
 H0 (null hypothesis): The coin is normal, and the proportion of heads it produces
equals 0.5
 H1 (alternative hypothesis): The magician is right, and the proportion of heads the
coin produces is greater than 0.5
The audience member flips the coin 100 times, and the coin comes up heads on 58 of those
flips. They perform the binomial test and obtain a p value of .067, and conclude that the coin
is NOT magical. Which of the following could describe this result?
a) False negative or False positive
b) False positive or True positive
c) True positive or False negative
d) True negative or False negative

Answer 133

d) True negative or False negative

Question 134

An organisational psychologist is interested in how different wellbeing initiatives affect
employees. In a workplace experiment, they assign employees of a company to one of five
initiatives (meditation, seminars, yoga, healthy lunches, or team sports) and one of two
durations (two weeks or two months). At the end, they measure employee satisfaction as
score on a 30-item questionnaire.
Which statistical test would be most appropriate to analyse the data resulting from this
experiment?
a) Factorial ANOVA
b) One-way ANOVA
c) Chi-square test of independence
d) MANOVA

Answer 134

A - factorial

Question 135

True or false: Both F and t follow a symmetric distribution, under the null hypothesis.

Answer 135

False- is not symmetrical they go in one direction only

Question 136

A researcher in interested in the effect of various nootropic drugs (caffeine, L-theanine, or
modafinil) on cognitive performance. They assign volunteers to take one of the three drugs
for a week, then measure their score on a standardised cognitive abilities test. However, the
researcher is worried that some of the drugs may disrupt sleep more than others. What could
they do to estimate the effect of drug type on cognitive ability, controlling for differences in
sleep?
a) Measure sleep duration, and use it as a covariate in an ANCOVA.
b) Measure sleep duration, and use it as a second outcome measure in a MANOVA.
c) Measure sleep duration, and exclude participants with very high or low values.
d) Measure sleep duration, and include it as a second factor in a two-way ANOVA

Answer 136

A - use it as a covariate

Question 137

Do sampling distributions always tell us the same thing?

Answer 137

no

Question 138

A news article reports that “there is a large effect of gender on mathematics grades in
primary school children.” Based on your statistical understanding of effect sizes, how would
you most likely interpret this claim?
a) The difference between boy’ and girls’ maths grades is less than half as big as the standard
deviation within each group.
b) The difference between boys’ and girls’ maths grades is almost as big as the standard
deviation within each group.
c) The distributions of boys’ and girls’ maths grades are completely non-overlapping.
d) Depending on the standard deviation of maths grades, any of the other options could be
correct

Answer 138

B

Question 139

when checking whether your data meet the assumptions for an independent-samples t-test, should you run a shapiro-wilk on each variable independently or for the whole thing?

Answer 139

each one individually

Question 140

You start your Honours project, and your new supervisor hands you an old dataset from
several years ago to analyse. The supervisor says that they did not find support for the
original hypothesis, but adds “This cost us a lot of time and money to collect. There’s got to
be something here we can salvage because it’s a cool data set.” They encourage you to run a
series of additional analyses on the data.
What would be the BEST thing to do, to avoid questionable research practices?
a) Re-run the experiment, and re-test for the original hypothesis.
b) If you find something interesting in the new analyses, pre-register a new experiment with
the new hypothesis and analysis plan.
c) If you find something interesting in the new analyses, write and publish a paper reporting
the new finding.
d) Re-run the original analyses, using non-parametric statistical tests

Answer 140

b- if there is something in the data that has piqued interest you can use it as a start for a new study

Question 141

Which of the following elements tends to be SHARED between qualitative and quantitative
research methods?
a) The use of numerical data.
b) The goal of being impartial and objective as a researcher.
c) The use of inductive and deductive reasoning.
d) The use of flexible methods that can be shifted in response to the current context

Answer 141

c - both use reasoning

Question 142

Walter Benjamin referred to the “dialogical image” – what does this phrase refer to?

Answer 142

That the meaning of an image is negotiated between the image and the person viewing it

Question 143

Photographs imitate and reflect their creator’s life, environment, and worldview. What is a
term for this?

Answer 143

mimetic - to echo something

Question 144

the only kind of reasoning which is thought to
establish certainty Is…

Answer 144

deductive

Question 145

In ______reasoning, you start with an assumption and then make observations or rational thoughts to validate or refute the assumption.

Answer 145

Deductive

Question 146

a kindergarten teacher has struggled to hold the attention of her class throughout the morning. She tries adding an extra five-minute activity break one hour after school starts. After a week of mood improvements and attention gains, she decides to permanently add the extra activity break

what kind of reasoning is this?

Answer 146

inductive
Inductive reasoning begins with observations that are specific and limited in scope, and proceeds to a generalized conclusion that is likely, but not certain, in light of accumulated evidence.

Question 147

salespeople may use this type of reasoning when they receive a short correspondence from a client, asking them to reply quickly about an issue. When the client doesn’t give enough information to understand before responding, a salesperson can use abductive reasoning to narrow down possible concerns. It’s sometimes better to prepare answers for a few best guesses.

what kind of reasoning is this?

Answer 147

abductive
Abductive reasoning typically begins with an incomplete set of observations and proceeds to the likeliest possible explanation for the set. Abductive reasoning yields the kind of daily decision-making that does its best with the information at hand, which often is incomplete.

Question 148

Whakawhanaungatanga refers to what concept

Answer 148

the creation of RELATIONAL space

Question 149

What are three assumptions that are often implicit in the scientific method that has emerged
from the European positivist/post-positivist tradition?
a) Universalism; Holism; Essentialism
b) Subjectivism; Reductionism; Essentialism
c) Universalism; Reductionism; Essentialism
d) Holism; Rationalism; Reductionism

Answer 149

C

Question 150

In Mana Moana “fala” is conceptualised as

Answer 150

The shared space of the interpersonal interactions

Question 151

What is the purpose of running post-hoc follow-up tests after a factorial ANOVA?

Answer 151

To find out which specific group means are different from one another.

Question 152

You are interested in whether some universities are better at preparing students for employment than others. You have data from five universities on the proportion of recent graduates who are currently employed. However, you are worried that differences in the social or economic family backgrounds of the students who attend different universities could also result in employment differences. What could you do?

Measure one or more variables capturing the socio-economic background of students, and use them as additional outcome measures in a MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance). This will estimate the effect of university on employment, controlling for socio-economic background.

A one-way ANOVA can tell you whether there are differences in graduate employment across different universities, but there is nothing you can do to take students’ socio-economic background into account.

The socio-economic background of students is a potential confound, so there is no way to tell what effect choice of university has on future employment.

Measure one or more variables capturing the socio-economic background of students, and use them as covariates in an ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance). This will estimate the effect of university on employment, controlling for socio-economic background.

Answer 152

Measure one or more variables capturing the socio-economic background of students, and use them as covariates in an ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance). This will estimate the effect of university on employment, controlling for socio-economic background.