Health

Question 1

what is a DALY

Answer 1

Disability Adjusted Life Year (DALY)
a common metric used
- Difference between a person’s life
expectancy and the number of years
that they can expect to live free of
health concerns/ disability.

Question 2

what can influence the experience of stress

Answer 2

interpretation and appraisal of stressors
For example, perceiving a work deadline as a threat rather than a challenge can lead to increased stress levels.

Question 3

Activities undertaken by people who experience symptoms but who have not yet received a diagnosis – ie determining their state of health and to discover suitable remedies.

Answer 3

Illness behaviour

Question 4

Behaviour of people after a diagnosis – ie behaviour to get well – get surgery, chemo etc

Answer 4

sick role behaviour

Question 5

what are some conditions shaping peoples responses to symptoms

Answer 5

personal factors (views of their own body, personality traits) Gender - males less likely , Age - older people contribute symptoms to aging. Socioeconomic factors, Stigma, characterization/interpretation of symptoms. Conceptualization of the disease (identity of disease, timeline, cause, controllability)

Question 6

privileges of sick role behaviour - 3

Answer 6

1- right to make decisions on health issues 2. the right to be exempt from normal duties, 3 right to become dependant on others

Question 7

responsibilites of sick role behaviour - 3

Answer 7

1 - duty to maintain health and get well 2 duty to preform routine healthcare management 3 duty to use health resources

Question 8

factors representing effectiveness of media - 4

Answer 8

• awareness - instruction - persuasion - misrepresentation/factual inaccuracies

Question 9

qualities that increase message effectiveness -4

Answer 9

credibility, engaging, personally relevant, understandble

Question 10

what is a prospective study

Answer 10

LONGITUDINAL - following them forward -followed over time ie: measures variable 1 at a baseline , and then measure variable 2 outcomes later on to see if V1 predicts V2 For example, a group of individuals might be watched over an extended period of time to observe the progression of a particular disease. YEILD STRONGER RESULTS

Question 11

what is a retrospective study?

Answer 11

Looking backwards - BEGINS WITH CASE STUDY-CONTROL STUDIES OF THOSE ALREADY SUFFERING WITH THE DISEASE inferring stuff about their past based on present state. measure V1 and 2 at same time to see if one infers another - involve looking at historical information. For example, researchers might start with an outcome, such as a disease, and then work their way backward to look at information about the individual’s life to determine risk factors that may have contributed to the onset of the illness.

Question 12

what is a nocebo

Answer 12

negative side effects due to placebo

Question 13

proportion of people that has a disease at a specific time is referred to as -

Answer 13

prevalence

Question 14

freq. of new cases in a time period is refered to as

Answer 14

incidence

Question 15

a persons chances of developing a disease or disorder independent of any risk that other people may have is referred to as

Answer 15

absolute risk

Question 16

ratio of the incidence or prevelance of a disease in the unexposed group. Always 1.00.

Answer 16

relative risk -For example, male cigarette smokers
have a relative risk of about 23.3 for dying of lung cancer
This means that, compared with nonsmokers, men who smoke are more
than 23 times as likely to die

Question 17

Conditions inferring a causal relationship -7

Answer 17

1- dose relationship must exist
2- removing condition reduces prevelance or incidence
3- cause and effect is physiologically possible
4-condition precede the disease
5- data reveals relationship
6- strength or relationship is high
7- studies are well designed

Question 18

this model Posits that individuals move through 6 stages

Answer 18

transtheoretical

Question 19

6 stages of transtheoretical model

Answer 19

1. Precontemplation – no awareness/intent
2. Contemplation – aware , not yet committed
3. Preparation – planning behaviour change
4. Action – implementation
5. Maintenance – monitoring
6. Termination – fail

Question 20

which model -To predict an individuals intention to engage in a behaviour at a specific time and place -includes behavioural control beliefs and perceived power

Answer 20

theory of planned behaviour TPB includes behavioral control as an additional determinant of intentions and behavior.

Question 21

this theory suggests that a person’s behavior is determined by their intention to perform the behavior and that this intention is, in turn, a function of their attitude toward the behavior and subjective norms
- Behavioural beliefs
- Evaluation of behaviour outcomes
- Normative beliefs
- Motivation to comply

Answer 21

The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) the only difference between this and TPB is
The theory of reasoned action (TRA) is a special case of the theory of planned behavior (TPB).

Question 22

This model posits that health behavior is determined by an individual’s perception of their susceptibility to a health problem, the severity of the problem, the benefits of taking action, and the barriers to taking action.

Answer 22

Health belief model

Question 23

This theory posits that people are more likely to engage in a health behavior if they have a sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in relation to that behavior.

Answer 23

self- determination theory

Question 24

This theory emphasizes the role of cognitive and behavioral factors in shaping health behavior. It posits that health behavior is determined by three factors: personal factors (such as attitudes and beliefs), environmental factors (such as social norms and access to resources), and behavior itself (such as past experiences and self-regulation).

Answer 24

social-cognitive theory

Question 25

This model posits that health and illness are influenced by a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors. According to this model, health is not solely determined by biological factors, but also by psychological and social factors such as stress, coping mechanisms, and social support.

Answer 25

Biopsychosocial model

Question 26

what is the definition of stress

Answer 26

any circumstance that threatens (or is perceived to threaten) one’s well being and that thereby taxes one’s coping ability.

Question 27

Folkman and Lazarus (1984) found that there is a cumulative nature to stress
* i.e., minor stresses (like moving house, changing jobs) can add up to be as stressful as a major traumatic event (death of loved one or divorce).
* Feeling stress depends on individual cognitive processes
* going on a date is exciting for some, terrifying for others.
* People’s appraisals of events are very subjective and influence the effect of the event.

Answer 27

1. Stress as a stimulus
2. Stress as a result of cognitive appraisal 3.Stress as a response (physiological, emotional, behavioural)
   Stress is a result of an interaction between an individual’s characteristics and appraisals, the external or internal event (stressor) environment, and the internal or external resources a person has available to them

Question 28

this model contended that a person’s capacity to cope and adjust to challenges and problems is a consequence of transactions (or interactions) that occur between a person and their environment.

Answer 28

The Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, proposed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984

Question 29

give examples of an emotional response to stress, a physiological response, and a behavioural response

Answer 29

Emotiional response –annoyance, greif, anxiety, anger, fear dejection

Physiological response – autonomic arousal, hormonal fluctuations, neurochemical changes etc

Behavioural response – coping efforts such as lashing out, blaming oneself, seeking help, solving problems and releasing emotions

Question 30

Event factors that may trigger stress

Answer 30

Events that are:
- Imminent
- Occur unexpectedly
- Unpredictable
- Ambiguous
- Potentially risky
- Undesirable
- Associated with low perceived control
- High life change

Question 31

name this stress: quickly dissipating reaction to an immediate threat involving the fight-flight-freeze-fawn response and is not considered a threat to health.

Answer 31

Acute - short term* For example – a sudden fright

Question 32

name this stress -response to a stressor that varies in duration, and which may make us more physiologically resistant to stress.

Answer 32

intermittant * For example – being at university

Question 33

name this stress: common to modern life, and which may pose a health risk. *

Answer 33

Chronic - long term For example – financial worries, ill-health, occupational demands, parenthood

Question 34

what are the 3 stages of general adaption syndrome (GAS)

Answer 34

1. Alarm stage: recognize a threat and mobilizes resources 2. Resistance stage: stress is prolonged and physiological arousal stabilizes but is still above baseline, as one copes with the stressor. 3. Exhaustion stage: body’s resources are depleted

Question 35

in which stage of the GAS do you get a burst of energy that helps you think more critically and help effectively tackle the stressful situation at hand.

Answer 35

Alarm stage

Question 36

positive psychology holds that the effects of stress are not entirely negative. can promote and improve what?

Answer 36

Stress can promote personal growth or self-improvement, and improve coping

Question 37

optimism is the expectation of what?

Answer 37

the expectation of good things will happen, and bad things will not happen, contrasted to pessimism.
* Related to psychological wellbeing, physical well-being, and more adaptive coping.

Question 38

______ involves an increased internal locus of control and high self-efficacy is strongly related to fostering better health habits, which are protective during times of increased stress. (One of the ffm)

Answer 38

conscientiousness

Question 39

what is this coping style -thoughts or actions whose goal is to relieve the emotional impact of stress. * These do not actually alter the threatening or damaging conditions but make the person feel better.

Answer 39

Emotione focused

Question 40

efforts to improve the troubled person-environment relationship by changing the cause of the stress. * By seeking information about what to do, by holding back from impulsive and premature actions, and by confronting the event (including person or persons) responsible for one’s difficulty.

Answer 40

Problem focused coping

Question 41

describe the marginalisation of certain groups in healthcare (why do researches specifically exclude groups)

Answer 41

Researchers specifically exclude certain groups – simplifies analyses * Often difficult to recruit members of certain subgroups into research * Members of certain subgroups may be unwilling to participate in research

Question 42

what are Barriers accessing and utilising health care system and facilities

Answer 42

cultural differences language barriers non-English speaking migrants most affected perceived racism misunderstandings of the health facilities

Question 43

describe the primary level of prevention with example

Answer 43

guide individuals to develop good habits – ie wearing sunscreen, raising awareness of drug use

Question 44

describe the secondary level of prevention with example

Answer 44

targeting of individuals who have early stages of emerging signs of disease, SCREENING

Question 45

describe the tertiary level of prevention with example

Answer 45

individuals who have already been diagnosed with disease of have an injury – emphasis on minimization and treatment – prevent reoccurrence

Question 46

what is the target population of prevention

Answer 46

normal, population risk - healthy people showing no symptoms of diease, no past or family history

Question 47

what is the at risk group

Answer 47

– healthy people showing no symptons of disease BUT family history, exsistance of other factors

Question 48

what are the qualities that increase message effectiveness (Characteristics of Persuasive Messages)

Answer 48

Credibility – this is the extent to which the message content is believed to be accurate and valid. This can be conveyed by the trustworthiness and competence of the source and the provision of convincing evidence. Sometimes individuals perceived as experts (e.g., researchers) are used to convey messages that require scientific accuracy and believability.

Engaging style and ideas – using stylistic features that are superficially attractive and entertaining, and content that is interesting, mentally stimulating or emotionally rousing.

Personally relevant – the communication is most effective if it is personally salient or relevant for the target audience. There is little point making an ad that features a teenager that is targeted at people over the age of 70.

Understandable – the message is most effective if it is simple, explicit, sufficiently detailed, comprehensive and comprehensible.

Question 49

remind yourself of the three basic communication processes health awareness campaigns typically use to move the target audience towards the desired response:

Answer 49

Awareness messages inform people what to do, specify who should do it and provide cues about when and where it should be done.
Instruction messages present how to do it information.
The campaign also needs to present messages with Persuasive reasons why the audience should adopt the particular action or behaviour.
Essentially, what these messages are trying to do is to change or create a certain attitude towards the behaviour, with the hope that attitude adoption will lead to behavioural change.

Question 50

define a chronic illness

Answer 50

long term - greater than 3 mths,
treatment is not curative -
often lifelong
lifestyle changes req.
functioning affected

Question 51

Adjustment in the context of illness -
An organism returns to ‘equilibrium’ after facing a disruption
Make changes to fit with new environment
* A range of domains to ‘measure’ adjustment;
* Quality of life * Emotional wellbeing * Life satisfaction * Self-esteem * Role functioning (work and social)
Highly complex * Many processes and influences * Adjustment is probably a non-linear process * Illnesses are highly varied, e.g. epilepsy vs. amputation * Models don’t explain enough variance in adjustment outcomes

Question 52

what does Moo and schaefers crisis theory explain

Answer 52

Individual’s ability to adapt influenced by three factors
Moos and Schaefer’s Crisis Theory offers a framework to understand and anticipate the factors that may affect coping and adaptation, by considering a chronic illness as a life crisis.
Firstly, :

Question 53

moo and schafer split the coping process into three sequential parts which are

Answer 53

1. Cognitive appraisal appraisal of the seriousness of the illness
2. Adaptive tasks dealing with pain and procedures – maintaining an emotional balance – preserving self image – sustaining relationships – preparing for an uncertain future
3. The use of coping skills understanding the illness – confronting related problems – managing emotions

Question 54

Moo and schafer argue that how well someone will be able to cope with a chronic illness, and successfully navigate these cognitive and practical tasks, is then impacted by three sets of factors:

Answer 54

1. Nature of the person (demographic and personal characteristics) ie. High achieveing athlete
2. Aspects of the illness (course, outcome) ie. Suppen spinal injury
3. Context (physical and social environment) ie. Supportive network societial beliefs about image

Question 55

Crisis theory( Moos and Schaefer)
Individual’s ability to adapt influenced by three factors
Strengths: * Clinically useful – psychologists can assess ‘adaptation’ in all seven areas Issues: * No clearly measurable outcomes – how to measure ‘adaptive tasks’ * No clear empirical basis – how were these categories decided upon? * As a result, has not been empirically applied to the chronic illness literature

Question 56

what does Lazarus and folkmans TRANSACTIONAL
Stress and coping model posit?

Answer 56

that a person’s capacity to cope and adjust to challenges and problems is a consequence of transactions (or interactions) that occur between a person and their environment.

Question 57

what are the 3 phases of Lazarus and folkmans transactional model
Stress and coping model – importance of appraisal and coping

Answer 57

1. Primary and secondary appraisal (is this a problem? How bad? Can I cope with this?)
2. Coping strategies
3. Reappraisal
   strengths:
   Overlap with other theories (e.g. cognitive behavioural models)
   * Good evidence base and overlap with other theories * Appraisals are central to coping
   * Coping efforts clearly affect adjustment

Question 58

this model Combines aspects of previous models * Defines adjustment as an outcome and a
process
* Acknowledges illness as an ongoing
stressor

Answer 58

Moss-morris Unified theory
The model of adjusting to chronic conditions has been proposed as a working model to help standardize some of the thinking and research in this area. The model addresses some of the complexities in the area by defining the process of adaption in a multifaceted way. It also provides good treatment utility in that interventions can be mapped onto building or maintaining existing cognitive and behavioural methods, which facilitate adjustment, and reducing those that maintain a state of disequilibrium

Question 59

Type of cancer is determined by:

Answer 59

-the organ it starts in
- the kind of cell from which it derives
-and the appearance of the cells

Question 60

stages of cancer

Answer 60

I – Localised and curable
II (early) and III (late) – Usually localised but advanced and may involve lymph nodes
IV – inoperable or metastatic cancer

Question 61

type of cancer treatment vaires according to

Answer 61

Site of the cancer
– Stage: Localised or metastatic
– Lymph node involvement
– Other prognostic factors (e.g., oestrogen receptivity of breast cancer cells)

Question 62

Pain
Pain does not always = suffering
Symptom severity and disability are not correlated
Without pain behaviour there would be no adaptive value to pain
what are the 3 dimensions of pain?

Answer 62

• Sensory – discriminative
  How intense the pain is, location quality of the pain, duration
• Affective – motivational
  Unpleasantness, fight or flight response
• Cognitive – evaluative
  Appraisals, interpretation of pain

Question 63

describe acute pain

Answer 63

Short duration, elicited by injury and goes away when tissue heals
Biomedical approaches are most effective

Question 64

describe chronic pain

Answer 64

Often brought about by injury and worsened by other factors
Interferes with functioning
Not explained by pathology
Biomedical approaches rarely very effective, though freq. sought after
Duration for chronic pain:
- Pain beyond healing time
- 3 or 6 months (largely arbitrary)

Question 65

what model of pain is described as Linear transmission from periphery through the spinal cord and to the brain
“The experience of pain is related to the amount of tissue injury or damage”

Answer 65

Specificity model - - I touch pain and the message transfers to the brain, the more firing the more intense the pain
does not explain:
why injurys are sometimes only noticed later
phantom pain
why non-pharmacological methods can relieve pain
pain durance absence of tissue pathology
or chronic pain

Question 66

this theory states that when a part of the body is damaged, nerve endings at the injured site transmit impulses to a specific part of the spinal cord. When nerve impulses reach the spinal cord, two things can happen: If the injury isn’t intense, the gate in the spinal cord remains closed, and the pain signal is not transmitted to the brain. But if the injury is too severe, the gate opens, and the pain signal is transmitted to the brain, leading to experiencing the pain.

Answer 66

Gate control theory
Gating mechanism in spinal cord in the substansia gelatinosa in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord– receives and modulates signal
Many brain areas involved – no fixed ‘pain center’
Both ascending and descending signals can modify pain
Clear relevance of biopsychosocial model
Pain can be modified by variety of psych and physical signals explains cognitive aspects of pain and allows for learning and experience to influence the exp./ of pain

Question 67

this theory of pain proposes that pain is a multidimensional experience produced by characteristic “neurosignature” patterns of nerve impulses generated by a widely distributed neural network-the “body-self neuromatrix”-in the brain.

Answer 67

the neuromatrix theory
A large widespread network of neurons that consists of loops between the thalamus and cortex as well as betweent eh cortex and llimbic system.
Normally the neuromatrix processes incoming sensory info, but it can even act in the absence of sensory input producing phantom limb syndrome

Question 68

a person who experiences a sudden onset of lower back pain after lifting a heavy object at work. The initial pain episode triggers fear and worry about the severity of the injury, leading to the belief that any movement or physical activity will worsen the pain or cause further damage.

Due to this fear of pain and injury, the individual begins avoiding activities that involve bending, lifting, or any type of physical exertion. They may even start avoiding work altogether or engaging in social and recreational activities that they associate with potential pain triggers.

what model of pain are they experiencing

Answer 68

fear- avoidance model
These changes contribute to increased pain sensitivity, reinforcing the belief that any movement will cause pain and further strengthening the fear-avoidance cycle.

it involves
initial injury
cognitive appraisal
fear of pain
avoidance
disuse/deconditioning
chronic pain development

Question 69

this Model of Pain is a psychological framework that explains how individuals appraise and cope with pain-related STRESSors. This model proposes that individuals’ cognitive APPRAISAL of pain and their COPING strategies play a crucial role in shaping their pain experience and its impact on their well-being.

Answer 69

Stress-appraisal-coping model of pain
The model consists of three main components:
STRESSOR APPRAISAL
COPING STRATEGIES
PAIN OUTCOME

Question 70

Pain catastrophizing refers to a cognitive and emotional response pattern in which individuals with chronic pain tend to magnify the significance of their pain and engage in exaggerated negative thinking and emotions related to their pain experience. It involves a tendency to focus on the worst possible outcomes and engage in an overwhelming sense of helplessness and hopelessness in relation to pain.

Answer 70

Addressing pain catastrophizing often involves cognitive-behavioral interventions that aim to modify maladaptive thoughts, challenge catastrophic beliefs, enhance self-efficacy for pain management, and promote the use of adaptive coping strategies. By reducing pain catastrophizing, individuals can experience improvements in pain management, emotional well-being, and overall quality of life.

Question 71

what do afferent neurons do?

Answer 71

relay information from the sensory receptors to the brain

Question 72

What do motor (efferent ) neurons do?

Answer 72

are for info coming from the brain down to signal movement etc\

Question 73

what are interneurons

Answer 73

inside the spinal grey matter connect the afferent and motor neurons

Question 74

Myelinated afferent neurons are called A FIBRES - there are 2 types, whats the biggest and which is faster

Answer 74

A-beta fibres are large and A-delta = small) large fibres are more than 100x faster (b comes first in the alphabet)

Question 75

unmyelinated are called C FIBERS – most common –up to 60%
A-beta fibres fire with little stimulation, C fibres need more – accordingly these different fibres result in different pain sensations
which one produces fast pain that is sharp or pricking and the other often results in a slower developing sensation of burning or dull pain

Answer 75

for example stimulation of A-Delta fibres produce fast pain that is sharp or pricking whereas stimulation of C fibres often results in a slower developing sensation of burning or dull pain
For example, imagine accidentally touching a hot stove. The moment your skin comes into contact with the hot surface, the A-delta fibers in your skin are activated, sending a rapid pain signal to your brain. This fast pain is sharp and immediate, causing you to quickly withdraw your hand from the stove to avoid further injury.

On the other hand, slow pain, or chronic pain, is characterized by a slower-developing sensation of burning or dull pain. It is mediated by the activation of C fibers, which are unmyelinated nerve fibers responsible for transmitting slower pain signals to the brain. Stimulation of C fibers often leads to a delayed and longer-lasting perception of pain, which is typically described as a burning, aching, or throbbing sensation.

Question 76

the sensory tracts and motor tracts are on which side of the spinal cord - posterior/anterior

Answer 76

Sensory tracks are on the back side of spinal cord(posterior) motor tracts are anterior (front)
my motors at the front and i feel sensations on the back

Question 77

these cytokines signal the nervous system and produce a raqnge of responses associated with sickness – decreased activity, increased fatigue and increased pain sensitivity.

Answer 77

Proinflammatory cytokines

Question 78

this structure near center of midbrain modulating pain – when stimulated neural activity spreads downward and pain relief occurs

Answer 78

PERIAQUEDUCTAL GREY

Question 79

this is a degenerative disease

Answer 79

arthritis
Inflammation of one or more joints, causing pain and stiffness that can worsen with age.

Question 80

this is an autoimmune arthritis

Answer 80

Rheumatoid arthritis
In rheumatoid arthritis, the body’s immune system attacks its own tissue, including joints. In severe cases, it attacks internal organs.
Rheumatoid arthritis affects joint linings, causing painful swelling. Over long periods of time, the inflammation associated with rheumatoid arthritis can cause bone erosion and joint deformity.

Question 81

this is a result of progressive inflamation

Answer 81

osteoarthritis
A type of arthritis that occurs when flexible tissue at the ends of bones wears down.
The wearing down of the protective tissue at the ends of bones (cartilage) occurs gradually and worsens over time.
Joint pain in the

Question 82

this is a chronic pain condition

Answer 82

fibromyalgia
is a condition that causes pain all over the body (also referred to as widespread pain), sleep problems, fatigue, and often emotional and mental distress. People with fibromyalgia may be more sensitive to pain than people without fibromyalgia. This is called abnormal pain perception processing.

Question 83

Pain measurement techniques

Answer 83

fall into 3 general categories : 1 – self report, 2 – behavioural observation and 3 – physiological measures. Self reports include rating scales and pain questionares such as the MPQ and MPI and standardized objective tests such as the MMPI and the Beck depression inventory

Question 84

knowledge skill and practices based on the theories beliefs and experiences indigenous to different cultures used in the maintenance of health and prevention AKA…

Answer 84

traditional medicine
It encompasses a wide range of healing traditions and systems that have been used for centuries, predating modern medicine.

Traditional medicine is deeply rooted in the cultural beliefs, values, and practices of a particular community. It often involves a holistic approach to health and well-being, focusing on the interconnectedness of the body, mind, and spirit. Traditional medicine systems are diverse and vary across different regions and cultures worldwide. Some well-known examples include Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ayurveda, Native American healing practices, and African traditional medicine.

Question 85

– group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices and products that are not currently part of ‘conventional medicine’

Answer 85

alternative medicine

Question 86

group of systems, practices and products which address medical issues in an unconventional way. Classification depends on cultural context and time period

Answer 86

CAM - complementary and alternative medicine
focuses on a holistic view, used as a complement or addition to standard medical care, aiming to support the body’s natural healing processes and promote overall well-being.

Question 87

who are more likely to use CAM?

Answer 87

upper class females - health status is a motivator

Question 88

describe Chinese medicine (TCM

Answer 88

balance is important to maintain and restoring health, if qi is blocked or stagnant disease and health problems devlop – balance between opposing energies or forces, yin and yang

Question 89

what is the goal of ayurvedic practice

Answer 89

intergrate and balance body mind and spirit

Question 90

what is mind body medicine

Answer 90

– the body, mind and behaviour interact in complex ways and that emotional, mental and socal and behavioural factors exert important effects on heath.

Question 91

what is transcendental meditation

Answer 91

repetition of phrase/word

Question 92

what is mindfullness meditation

Answer 92

• focusing on thoughts and awareness as they come, being aware of thoughts and perceptions
  Practicing mindfulness involves breathing methods, guided imagery, and other practices to relax the body and mind and help reduce stres

Question 93

what is known as the practice or cultivation of the qi by simple postures and simple movements to channel enery and restore balance

Answer 93

Qi gong

Question 94

this form of qi gong from martial arts background- Involves slow gentle movements that shift weight – moving meditation

Answer 94

tai chi

Question 95

this involves trying to control biological processes consciously

Answer 95

biofeedback

Question 96

Integrative medical requires conventional and alternative medicine practitioners to work together and accept the effectiveness of both approaches and form a working relationship

For alternative medicine treatments to be accepted by conventional medicine research evidence must confirm their effectiveness, the standard for this is controversial as it is hard to make randomised controlled trials that are unbiased – hard to do

Question 97

what is the role of a health psychologist?

Answer 97

The role of a health psychologist involves studying the psychological factors that influence health, illness, and healthcare. Health psychologists focus on understanding how psychological, behavioral, and social factors impact overall well-being, disease prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation. They work in various settings, including healthcare facilities, research institutions, universities, and private practice. health psychologists play a crucial role in understanding the psychological aspects of health and illness and promoting overall well-being. They contribute to the development of effective interventions, conduct research to enhance our understanding of the mind-body connection, and work collaboratively to improve the healthcare experience for individuals and communities.

Question 98

explain the biomedical approach vs the biopsychosocial approach

Answer 98

The biomedical approach, also known as the biomedical model, focuses primarily on the biological aspects of health and illness. It views illness as primarily caused by biological factors such as pathogens, genetic abnormalities, or physiological dysfunctions. In this approach, the emphasis is placed on diagnosing and treating the specific physical symptoms or disease processes. Healthcare interventions typically involve medical tests, procedures, and pharmacological treatments aimed at addressing the underlying biological causes of the illness. The biomedical approach is often utilized in conventional or mainstream medicine.

In contrast, the biopsychosocial approach takes into account the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding health and illness. It recognizes that biological factors alone do not fully explain the complexity of human health and the experience of illness. This approach acknowledges the influence of psychological, behavioral, and social factors in determining an individual’s well-being and the development and progression of disease.

Question 99

Descartes argued that the mind and body are separate entities that interact through the pineal gland. This concept is commonly referred to as Cartesian dualism.
According to Descartes, the mind is a non-physical substance responsible for consciousness, thoughts, and mental processes, while the body is a physical entity subject to the laws of nature. what 4 impacts did his ideas produce

Answer 99

MIND BODY INTERACTION-Descartes’ philosophy of mind-body interaction influenced the exploration of the connection between mental and physical health, leading to the development of psychosomatic medicine and health psychology. This recognizes the interplay between psychological factors and physical health outcomes.

PSYCHOSOCIAL RESEARCH -Descartes’ ideas laid the foundation for psychophysiological research, which investigates how mental and emotional states can influence physiological processes. This research contributes to our understanding of stress, coping mechanisms, and their impact on physical health.

BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL -Descartes’ dualistic perspective influenced the development of the biopsychosocial model, which considers biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding health and illness. This model recognizes the interconnectedness of these domains in shaping health outcomes.

PLACEBO EFFECT -Descartes indirectly influenced the study of the placebo effect, highlighting the role of psychological factors in therapeutic interventions and their effects on symptom reduction and well-being.

Question 100

if Bob learns from his doctor that he is at risk of developing heart disease due to his sedentary lifestyle, the model predicts that Bob’s likelihood of engaging in exercise will increase if he perceives the risk as severe and believes that exercise will effectively reduce the risk. name that model

Answer 100

the health belief model

Question 101

Bob is a smoker who is considering quitting. Initially, he may be in the precontemplation stage, not yet seriously considering quitting. However, as he becomes aware of the health risks and starts contemplating quitting, he moves into the contemplation stage. Bob’s progress through the stages will be influenced by his readiness to change and the strategies he employs. what model is the?

Answer 101

the transtheoritical model

Question 102

Bob, who wants to lose weight, can benefit from SCT. By enhancing his self-efficacy, such as setting realistic weight loss goals and celebrating small successes, Bob is more likely to persist with healthy eating and exercise behaviors. Bob may also find inspiration from others who have successfully achieved their weight loss goals, serving as role models. what model is this

Answer 102

the social cognitive model

Question 103

In this stage, in the TTM individuals are not yet considering behavior change and may be unaware or in denial of the need for change. Interventions in this stage often focus on raising awareness and motivating individuals to move to the next stage. For example, providing education about the risks and benefits of change, sharing personal stories or testimonials, and engaging in motivational interviewing techniques to explore ambivalence.

Answer 103

precontemplation

Question 104

in this stage individuals are ready to take action and have set specific goals for behavior change. Interventions in this stage focus on developing concrete plans and building self-efficacy. This can involve helping individuals create action plans, setting achievable goals, identifying potential obstacles, and providing support and resources to increase self-confidence.

Answer 104

preparation

Question 105

During this stage, individuals start recognizing the need for change and begin considering it but may still have mixed feelings or uncertainty. Interventions in this stage aim to help individuals weigh the pros and cons of change and enhance their commitment to change. Strategies may include exploring the personal meaning and importance of the behavior change, providing decisional balance exercises, and addressing any concerns or barriers to change.

Answer 105

contemplation

Question 106

this TTM stage involves actively engaging in the behavior change process. Interventions in this stage center around supporting individuals in implementing and maintaining their new behaviors. This can include providing strategies for behavior modification, developing coping skills for managing cravings or setbacks, offering social support and encouragement, and monitoring progress.

Answer 106

action

Question 107

in this TTM stage individuals have successfully sustained their behavior change for an extended period. Interventions in this stage aim to prevent relapse and solidify the new behavior as a long-term habit. Strategies may involve continued support, relapse prevention planning, developing strategies for dealing with high-risk situations, and fostering a sense of self-efficacy and confidence in maintaining the behavior change.

Answer 107

maintainence

Question 108

Conducting interviews with cancer survivors to understand their emotional experiences during treatment and recovery. is an example of what type of research?

Answer 108

qualitative-

Question 109

Conducting a survey to assess the relationship between physical activity levels and mental health outcomes in a population of college students. is an example of what type of research?

Answer 109

quantitative

Question 110

this type of research is is valuable for generating rich and detailed descriptions, capturing diverse perspectives, and exploring complex social and psychological processes. but is limited in terms of generalizability due to its small sample sizes and the potential for researcher bias during data analysis.

Answer 110

qualitative

Question 111

this type of research may overlook context-specific details and fail to capture the richness of individual experiences.

this research allows for large sample sizes, statistical comparisons, and generalizability to larger populations.

Answer 111

quantitative

Question 112

this type of research would involve Analyzing medical records and patient recall to investigate the potential risk factors associated with the development of a specific disease.

Answer 112

retrospective

Question 113

this type of research would involve Recruiting a group of individuals and following them over several years to examine the long-term effects of a particular lifestyle intervention on cardiovascular health outcomes.

Answer 113

prospective

Question 114

this type of research can provide insights into the long-term effects of specific events or behaviors. However, relying on participants’ recall can introduce memory biases, and the availability and accuracy of past data may vary.

these studies are often used to study long-term outcomes, historical trends, or the effects of past interventions. They can provide insights into the long-term effects of specific events or behaviors

Answer 114

Retrospective Research

Question 115

these studies can be time-consuming, expensive, and subject to attrition (loss of participants over time), which may limit the validity and generalizability of findings.

But It allows for the examination of cause-and-effect relationships and the tracking of changes over time.

Answer 115

prospective

Question 116

what can influence the experience of stress

Answer 116

The interpretation and appraisal of stressors, which occur at the psychological level, significantly influence the experience of stress. Cognitive appraisal theory suggests that how individuals perceive and interpret stressors determines their emotional and physiological response. For example, perceiving a work deadline as a threat rather than a challenge can lead to increased stress levels.

Question 117

define resilience

Answer 117

Resilience refers to the capacity to bounce back from adversity and maintain well-being in the face of stressors. Psychological interventions aimed at building resilience can help individuals develop a positive mindset, strengthen social support networks, and cultivate adaptive coping skills, which contribute to better stress management.

Question 118

what are some strengths of fear campaigns?

Answer 118

-Attention grabbing - creates a sense of urgency
- perceived threat can motivate behaviour change
emotional impact - emotionally charged messages are easily recalled

Question 119

this is the most common type of cancer and originate from epithelial cells, which are found in the skin, lining of organs, and glandular tissue. _______ can affect various organs such as the breast, lung, colon, prostate, and skin.

Answer 119

Carcinomas

Question 120

this cancer develops from connective tissues such as bone, muscle, cartilage, and fat. They are less common than carcinomas and can occur in areas such as the bones, muscles, blood vessels, and soft tissues.

Answer 120

Sarcoma

Question 121

these cancers that affect the blood and bone marrow, where blood cells are produced. They involve the overproduction of abnormal white blood cells, which interfere with the normal functioning of other blood cells. ______ are further classified into different types based on the specific blood cells involved.

Answer 121

Leukemias

Question 122

these are cancers that originate in the lymphatic system, which includes lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, and certain organs like the spleen and thymus. They involve the abnormal growth of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell.

Answer 122

lymphoma

Question 123

what is self compassion

Answer 123

unconditional feelings of care, acceptance and kindness towards oneself when dealing with difficult experiences

Question 124

What does the Diathesis-stress model posit?

Answer 124

The diathesis-stress model is a psychological framework that explains the development of mental disorders as a result of the interaction between a person’s vulnerability (diathesis) and stressful life events (stress). It suggests that individuals have varying levels of vulnerability or predisposition to certain disorders, and when they encounter significant stressors, these vulnerabilities may be activated, leading to the onset of psychological symptoms or disorders.

Question 125

how does stress effect the immune system?

Answer 125

chronic or prolonged stress can suppress immune function, disrupt immune regulation, and increase susceptibility to illnesses. It is essential to manage stress effectively through stress reduction techniques, healthy lifestyle habits, and seeking social support to support optimal immune system functioning.

Question 126

Mind-Body-medicine
Includes but is not limited to:
* Deep breathing
* Meditation (Transcendental, Mindfulness, Guided
imagery)
* Yoga and Tai Chi (series of exercises or movements
intended to help body’s energy and restore balance)
* Biofeedback (providing feedback information about
the status of biological systems and control
physiological responses, like lowering heart rate)
* Electromyograph feedback is used to help people control
lower back pain and headaches by helping to decrease
muscle tension

Answer 126

The belief that the brain, mind, body, and behaviour
interact in complex ways
* The concept behind these techniques is that the mind
and body represent a holistic system of dynamic
interactions

Question 127

Guided imagery good for post op pain/child birth
acupuncture good for lower back pain
bio feedback good for migraines
hypnosis good for burn

Question 128

Consideration and Uptake of alternative/traditional medicines These regimes and approaches are considered
“alternative” because there is insufficient positivistic
evidence re their effectiveness but:

Answer 128

controversy over how to fairly evaluate effectiveness
* difficult to complete double-blind trials
* concern over whether westernised medical treatments
are held to same high standards

Question 129

Concerns for Uptake of CAM

Answer 129

Lack of information on some interventions’
effectiveness.
* Natural products are not often regulated.
* Natural products may carry risk of adverse reactions
and interactions with other OTC drugs.
* Unscrupulous industries and practitioners may oversell
and underestimate the risks/limitations of the
interventions (no different to many relying on western
approaches).
* Many of these approaches are not usually covered by
Medicare (or are additional costs in private health
insurance), so may be expensive

Question 130

What are the 7 challenges in Health psychs future?

Answer 130

health disparities are related to prejudice re the race/ethnicity/culture of the
user. - the racial bias in healthcare
2.Educational and socioeconomic disparities also play
a large role in health disparities globally, low income and lower education levels are more likely to have risky health habits
3. Limited acceptance by other health care practitioners
4. Health psychologists need to justify the cost of their
services
5. A concern for good health has appeared in national
policies, resulting in declining mortality But we do not only want to increase life expectancy, we
want to also increase quality of life “well years”
6. escalating health care costs
7. Health psychologists play an important role in
promoting healthy behaviours

Question 131

The broad goals of health psychology are to (1) increase ____________and (2) eliminate __________

Answer 131

(1) increase the span of healthy life and (2) eliminate health disparities.

Question 132

what is the Rolland’s Family System Model?

Answer 132

Rolland’s Family System Model: Shift away from
hospital (and physician-based) care to a team
approach for access to meaningful care interventions
(including patient/client education/support as well as
for affected carers/families/communities).
Rolland’s Family System Model emphasizes the importance of maintaining a balance between individual autonomy and family togetherness, as well as the need for open communication and shared decision-making within the family. The model aims to enhance family resilience and promote healthy adaptation to the challenges posed by illness.

Question 133

this model is a theoretical framework that explores the role of cognitive processes in the experience of distress and chronic pain. It suggests that individuals’ interpretations and appraisals of pain and its consequences play a central role in determining their emotional and behavioral responses to pain.

Answer 133

The cognitive mediational model of distress and chronic pain
According to this model, cognitive processes mediate the relationship between pain stimuli and emotional distress. It proposes that certain cognitive factors, such as pain catastrophizing, self-efficacy beliefs, and perceived control, influence how individuals perceive and respond to chronic pain.

Question 134

According to The cognitive mediational model of distress and chronic pain, cognitive processes mediate the relationship between pain stimuli and emotional distress. It proposes that certain cognitive factors, such as p___ _______ing, s__-___y beliefs, and p_____ _____l, influence how individuals perceive and respond to chronic pain.

The cognitive mediational model suggests that interventions targeting these cognitive factors can lead to improved outcomes in individuals with chronic pain. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is commonly used to address maladaptive cognitive processes and promote adaptive coping strategies. Through CBT, individuals can learn to identify and challenge negative thoughts and beliefs about pain, develop effective pain management skills, and enhance their sense of control over their pain experience.

Answer 134

pain catastrophizing, self-efficacy beliefs, and perceived control
Pain Catastrophizing: Pain catastrophizing refers to the tendency to magnify the negative aspects of pain and to feel helpless or overwhelmed by it. Individuals who engage in pain catastrophizing tend to interpret pain as more intense, threatening, and uncontrollable, which can contribute to increased distress and disability.

Self-Efficacy Beliefs: Self-efficacy beliefs refer to individuals’ confidence in their ability to manage and cope with pain. Higher levels of self-efficacy are associated with better pain management strategies, greater functional ability, and lower levels of distress. Individuals with high self-efficacy beliefs perceive pain as less threatening and are more likely to engage in adaptive coping behaviors.

Perceived Control: Perceived control refers to individuals’ beliefs about their ability to influence or control their pain experience. Those who perceive a greater sense of control over their pain are more likely to employ active coping strategies and experience lower levels of distress. Conversely, individuals who perceive a lack of control may feel helpless and experience heightened distress.

Question 135

Which of the following is NOT a challenge that needs to be considered in the future of health psychology?

a.
Modernising medical science in ways that are inclusive of various cultural perspectives.

b.
Addressing the protracted legacy of colonisation on health outcomes for diverse groups.

c.
Making sense of the often-contradictory findings from different studies on the same area topic.

d.
Reducing patient’s/client’s reliance on westernised health approaches.

Answer 135

Reducing patient’s/client’s reliance on westernised health approaches.

Question 136

Which of the following is a hallmark of the progress made in health psychology?

a.
There is an increased focus on diversity and inclusion in health intervention approaches.

b.
The medical fraternity has become increasingly enthusiastic to work collaboratively with health psychologists.

c.
The biomedical model of health is fully recognised as the core theoretical and practical approach to individual, community, and population wellness.

d.
The inclusion of subjective norms in many of its models and theoretical approaches.

Answer 136

a.
There is an increased focus on diversity and inclusion in health intervention approaches.

Question 137

Chronic pain is defined as any pain that lasts longer than

Answer 137

3-6 months

Question 138

Cognitive strategies recommended to help people cope with chronic pain include:

Answer 138

Being knowledgeable about the chronic pain
Meditation and relaxation techniques to reduce muscle tension
Improving sleep patterns
Recognising unhelpful thoughts and swapping these to improve mood and coping
Doing more things that they love
Practice mindfulness

Question 139

What pain is this?
Short duration, elicited by injury, and goes away
when tissue heals (Turk & Okfuji, 2010)
Biomedical approaches are most effective

Answer 139

Acute pain

Question 140

This pain is:
Often brought about by injury and worsened by other factors
Interferes with functioning
Not explained by pathology
Biomedical approaches rarely very effective, though
frequently sought after (Turk & Okifuji, 2010)
Duration for chronic pain:
Pain beyond expected healing time
3 or 6 months (largely arbitrary)

Answer 140

chronic pain

Question 141

Chronic pain may be due to a number of causes. Pain after a stroke is called?

Select one:

a.
Neuropathic pain

b.
Neoplastic pain

c.
Non-specific pain

d.
Idiopathic pain

Answer 141

a.
Neuropathic pain

Question 142

There are many types of psychological interventions to help the suffering experienced in chronic pain. The use of colouring in books are a form of _________________.
Select one:

a.
Distraction based therapy

b.
Cognitive based therapy

c.
Mindfulness based therapy

d.
Visualisation therapy

Answer 142

a.
Distraction based therapy

Question 143

Christensen et al. (2015) studied patients undergoing haemodialysis. They found that when stressors in the haemodialysis context were considered relatively controllable, ________ was associated with more favourable adherence to their medical regime.

a.
Emotion focused coping

b.
Passive coping

c.
Active coping

d.
Planful problem solving

Answer 143

d.
Planful problem solving

Question 144

Typical features of chronic illness: are

Answer 144

long term
treatment is not often curative
lifestyle changes required
functioning often affected

Question 145

Major life crises and transitions disrupt social
and psychological equilibrium
* Response to a crisis (and return of equilibrium)
can be healthy adaptation or a maladaptive
response
* Illness or injury considered a ‘crisis’

Answer 145

moos and schafer crisis theory

Individual’s ability to adapt influenced by three factors
1. Nature of the person (demographic and personal
characteristics)
2. Aspects of the illness (course, outcome)
3. Context (physical and social environment)

Strengths:
* Clinically useful – psychologists can assess ‘adaptation’ in all seven areas

Issues:
* No clearly measurable outcomes – how to measure ‘adaptive tasks’
* No clear empirical basis – how were these categories decided upon?
* As a result, has not been empirically applied to the chronic illness literature

Question 146

Moss-Morris (2013) Unified Theory

Key features * Combines aspects of previous models * Defines adjustment as an outcome and a
process
* Acknowledges illness as an ongoing
stressor
* Good treatment utility

Limitations * Complex, lacks parsimony (perhaps
inevitable)
* Challenging to measure and build an
empirical basis

Answer 146

Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) transactional model

• Stress and coping model – importance of appraisal and coping
  1. Primary and secondary appraisal (is this a problem? How bad? Can I cope with this?)
  2. Coping strategies
  3. Reappraisal
• Foundation for research in illness-related adjustment
• Overlap with other theories (e.g. cognitive behavioural models)
• Good evidence base and overlap with other theories
• Appraisals are central to coping
• Coping efforts clearly affect adjustment

Question 147

what are Aims of psychological treatment in chronic healthcare

Answer 147

Promote adjustment
* Psychological distress
* Role functioning (work, relationships)
* Promote self-management
* Manage illness itself
* Part of holistic (biopsychosocial) patient care
* Improve quality of life and reduce cost of illness

Question 148

why would Approximately 70% of deaths from cancer occur in low- and
middle-income countries.

Answer 148

Late-stage presentation and inaccessible diagnosis and
treatment are common. In 2017, only 26% of low-income
countries reported having pathology services generally available
in the public sector.
u More than 90% of high-income countries reported treatment
services are available compared to less than 30% of low-income
countries

Question 149

describe levels of depression and anxiety before, during and after radiation therapy

Answer 149

Prior to RT most patients report increased
anxiety
 During RT anxiety peaks then gradually
decreases
 Depression increases once RT commences
and for many individuals remains after the
conclusion of RT

Question 150

psychological issues in psycho-oncology after treatment

Answer 150

Long-term treatment (cycles of surgery, chemotherapy) months to years
 End of treatment does not automatically bring about better psychological
functioning
 Stressful due to loss of support network from staff and patients
 Uncertainty of efficacy of the treatment once completed – “fear of
recurrence”
 Psychological distress increases with number of physical side effects
 Patients may need to adopt a new “normal” functioning

Psychosocial care needs to continue beyond
the conclusion of treatment

Question 151

Medical CrisisCounselling (Koocher & Pollin, 2001)

Assumption: psychological responses to medical crises
rarely represent pathology
 Emphasises normalising assumption that medical
diseases are stressful for everyone

Answer 151

Assess patient’s perspective on the illness – story of their
illness
 Medical issues
 Current social functioning
 Occupational functioning
 Functioning within medical system (e.g., involvement with
decisions made, satisfaction with care received)
 Goal to limit impediments to optimal functioning and to
promote active coping

Question 152

SURVIVORSHIP: Treatment Side Effects that may influence wellbeing

Answer 152

Long term treatment frequently results in residual side
effects (may be permanent)
 Fear of recurrence
 Lymphoedema – related to RT
 Infertility/loss of sexual function
 Disfigurement – particularly head and neck cancers
 Speech impairments
 Need to “re-enter” to previous life or new version of
everyday life

Question 153

Terminal Phases/End-of-life: Demoralisation

Accepting cancer
recurrence/metastasis
 Existential concerns
 Palliative care
 Keeping well
 Planning for end-of-life
 Re-prioritising

Answer 153

Results from existential conflict
 Symptoms - hopelessness and helplessness caused by a loss of
purpose and meaning in life.
 Associated with desire for hastened death.
 Demoralization is prevalent (clinically significant 13%–18%)
 poorly controlled physical symptoms
 inadequately treated depression and anxiety
 reduced social functioning
 unemployment
 single

Question 154

An estimated ____ in ____ Australians will develop cancer before the age of 85.

Select one:

a.
1 in 4

b.
1 in 2

c.
1 in 5

d.
2 in 3

e.
1 in 10

Answer 154

b.
1 in 2

Question 155

Which of the following statements are MOST true when comparing couples’ responses to acute leukemia?

Select one:

a.
The most ineffective coping strategy is when couples act as a unit

b.
The most adaptive and effective coping strategy is when couples act as a unit

c.
Couples acting as a unit and independently are not content and experience a sense of powerlessness

d.
Couples acting as a unit and subordinately are not content and experience a sense of powerlessness

e.
In couples, all coping styles are equally as effective

Answer 155

b.
The most adaptive and effective coping strategy is when couples act as a uni

Question 156

The Medical Crisis Counselling Intervention

Select one:

a.
emphasizes that medical diseases are stressful for everyone

b.
believes that patient perspectives on the illness are irrelevant

c.
focuses on patient perspectives on the illness and their consequences

d.
both (a) and (b)

e.
Both (a) and (c)

Answer 156

e.
Both (a) and (c)

Question 157

BRCA1/2 are genes identified in playing a role in which cancer:

Select one:

a.
Melanoma

b.
Colon cancer

c.
Prostate cancer

d.
Breast cancer only

e.
Breast and ovarian cancer

Answer 157

e.
Breast and ovarian cancer

Question 158

Remember that there are two questions to answer when trying to decide who is the target audience:

Who is most in need of change?
Who is most likely to be influenced by the message?

Answer 158

The most effective campaigns seem to be the ones that are targeting groups who people who are already showing early signs of adopting the desired behaviour or greater likelihood that they will pick up the new behaviours (e.g., a message to eat 5 a day fruit and vegetables among people who are already eating a nutritional diet – this message may help to guide their eating habits more precisely, or it may just reinforce what is already known).

More difficult target audiences are groups of people who have people that have not as yet tried the unhealthy behaviour (e.g., taking illicit drugs) but whose background characteristics make it unlikely that they will heed the health warning message (e.g., rebellious and sensation-seeking adolescents).

Another difficult group to convince are those who are already committed to the unhealthy behaviours and who will not be readily influenced by direct marketing campaigns.

Question 159

Rhianne has noticed a small lump in her breast. What aspect of the Commonsense Model of Self-Regulation of Health and Illness might explain whether Rhianne will notify her GP about the lump?

Select one:

a.
Action for emotional control

b.
Use of concrete imagery

c.
Secondary appraisal

d.
Illness and risk representations

Answer 159

The aspect of the Commonsense Model of Self-Regulation of Health and Illness that might explain whether Rhianne will notify her GP about the lump is:

d. Illness and risk representations

The Commonsense Model proposes that individuals develop their own mental representations of illnesses and associated risks. These representations include their beliefs, perceptions, and understanding of the illness and its potential consequences. When Rhianne notices a small lump in her breast, her decision to notify her GP or not may be influenced by her illness and risk representations. If she perceives the lump as a potential sign of a serious health issue, she may consider it as a higher risk and prioritize seeking medical attention. On the other hand, if her illness representation is that the lump is insignificant or harmless, she might be less likely to notify her GP. The illness and risk representations play a crucial role in determining individuals’ behaviors and actions regarding their health concerns.

Regenerate response

Question 160

Talia has just been diagnosed with breast cancer and is expected to undergo a mastectomy in a week’s time. She has to make a number of decisions about her surgery however she has been struggling to do so. Which of the following is the best answer that may explain Talia’s struggle?

Select one:

a.
Lack of information

b.
Decisional conflict

c.
Cognitive repression

d.
Cognitive suppression

Answer 160

The best answer that may explain Talia’s struggle in making decisions about her surgery is:

b. Decisional conflict

Talia’s struggle to make decisions about her surgery could be attributed to decisional conflict. Decisional conflict refers to a state of uncertainty or difficulty in making a choice when faced with multiple options. In Talia’s case, the diagnosis of breast cancer and the need for a mastectomy likely present her with various treatment options, such as different surgical approaches or reconstructive options. This abundance of choices can lead to decisional conflict, as she weighs the potential benefits, risks, and personal values associated with each option. This conflict can create emotional distress and make it challenging for Talia to reach a decision. Providing her with additional information, counseling, and support can help alleviate decisional conflict and facilitate the decision-making process.

Question 161

For those with chronic illnesses, broader illness self-management interventions (which include some psychological components) have been shown to be ________ in a long-term sense.
Select one:

a.
Effective only for certain types of illness

b.
Ineffective

c.
Effective only in certain individuals

d.
Effective

e.
Unnecessary

Answer 161

d. Effective

Broader illness self-management interventions, which include psychological components, have been shown to be effective in a long-term sense for individuals with chronic illnesses. These interventions typically aim to empower individuals with the knowledge, skills, and resources to actively manage their condition, make informed decisions, and cope with the challenges associated with their illness. Psychological components, such as promoting self-efficacy, addressing emotional well-being, and providing coping strategies, can contribute to the overall effectiveness of these interventions. Therefore, they have demonstrated positive outcomes in improving long-term management and health outcomes for individuals with chronic illnesses.

Question 162

Percy has been advised to increase his level of surveillance and to undergo active treatment for his recently diagnosed prostate cancer. The diagnosis has resulted in feelings of anxiety and depression. What is the most likely result of the heightened anxiety and depression?

Select one:

a.
Percy’s anxiety will affect his ability to maintain his surveillance plans, and his depression will affect his engagement with treatment

b.
Percy’s depression will affect his engagement with treatment, but his anxiety will not affect his ability to maintain his surveillance plans

c.
Percy’s anxiety will not affect his ability to maintain his surveillance plans, and his depression will not affect his engagement with treatment

d.
Percy’s anxiety will affect his ability to maintain his surveillance plans, but his depression will not affect his engagement with treatment

Answer 162

The most likely result of the heightened anxiety and depression in Percy’s case would be:

a. Percy’s anxiety will affect his ability to maintain his surveillance plans, and his depression will affect his engagement with treatment.

Anxiety can have a negative impact on a person’s ability to maintain regular surveillance plans due to increased worry, fear, and difficulty concentrating. It may make it challenging for Percy to adhere to the recommended monitoring schedule for his prostate cancer. On the other hand, depression can lead to a lack of motivation, decreased energy levels, and feelings of hopelessness, which can affect Percy’s engagement with treatment. It may make it harder for him to actively participate in his treatment plan and follow through with necessary actions or appointments.

Question 163

what is the role of a health psychologist in health promotion?

Answer 163

Psychologists have a role in designing and implementing interventions to
change health behaviours

Question 164

Raising awareness about the risks of
smoking and drug use. is an example of what level of health promotion

Answer 164

primary

Question 165

TB
screening is an example of what level of health promotion

Answer 165

secondary

Question 166

prevent recurrence of disease/injury is an example of what level of health promotion

Answer 166

tertiary

Question 167

describe PROTECTION MOTIVATION
THEORY

Answer 167

Protection motivation stems
from threat and coping
appraisals

We protect ourselves based on
* perceived severity
* perceived vulnerability
* Response efficacy (how well
the recommended preventive
behaviour works)
* Perceived self-efficacy

Question 168

exposure to fear-related messages about the consequences of
not exercising led to increases in perceived threat and an
increase in intentions to exercise
 Only when this fear-laden message was incorporated with
information about implementing an exercise program that
exercise behaviours increased.

Question 169

Which of the following is an advantage of focusing prevention and promotion campaigns towards at-risk populations?

Select one:

a.
Better able to identify factors that are not associated with the onset of disease

b.
Curing and eliminating health behaviours that lower the vulnerability of disease

c.
Curing and eliminating diseases that have infected the population

d.
Better able to identify factors that are associated with the onset of disease

e.
Adoption of poor health habits that contribute to vulnerability for disease

f.
Adoption of good health habits that contribute to disease vulnerability

Answer 169

Better able to identify factors that are associated with the onset of disease

Question 170

Limitations of past health and
health psychology research

Answer 170

Samples studied have not been diverse or
representative
* Many of the conclusions of these studies have been
misleading
* Hypertension (gender)
* Participants in clinical trials

• Researchers specifically exclude certain groups – simplifies
  analyses
• Often difficult to recruit members of certain subgroups into
  research
• Members of certain subgroups may be unwilling to
  participate in research

Question 171

Pitfalls of relying on general
population results

Answer 171

Generic interventions applied to specific groups are
unlikely to work
* Health needs of diverse groups should not be
assumed to be the same as the dominant culture
* Psychology can go a long way towards accounting for
differences in health between different subgroups.

Question 172

Indigenous Australians have a life expectancies of approximately ____ to ___ years
below that of other
Australians

Answer 172

approximately 8-10 years
below that of other
Australians
Behavioural risk factors, such as smoking, obesity, alcohol use and diet, account for around 19 per cent of the gap in life expectancy between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.

Leading causes of death:
heart disease
lower respiratory diseases
diabetes
malignant neoplasm of trachea, bronchus and lung
intentional self harm/suicide (6% vs 1.9% non-Indig)

Question 173

Health psychologists can assist with the development and design of culturally
appropriate interventions for indigenous communities

Answer 173

Need culturally-appropriate interventions
Behavioural and cognitive interventions most effective, with lifestyle counselling
Community interventions may be more effective than individual-based
collaborative and multi-level system approach needed
Low methodological quality and high inconsistency in data collection of studies (few
clinical trials)
Need for ‘bottom-up’ approach
community members involved in design and implementation of programs
reflect cultural beliefs about health

Question 174

what percentage of indigenous australians have diabetes

Answer 174

9%

Question 175

what factors contribute to the indigenous health crisis?

Answer 175

widely recognised factors include a luck of culturally appropriate health systems, dispossesion of land, suppression of traditional culture, poor access to education and removal of children from homes

Question 176

aboriginal and torres straight islanders have the worlds oldest living human culture - true or false

Answer 176

true - aboriginal culture spans 50,000 - 60,000 years, at least 10x older than ancient egypt

Question 177

the majority of indigenous people live in remote areas true or false?

Answer 177

false only about 21% of aboriginals live remote

Question 178

Amy lives in rural NSW. Her brother James has recently moved to the CBD to be closer to work. Should Amy be more or less concerned about James’ risk of being involved in a drink-driving accident?

Answer 178

less

Question 179

through what years in the 1900 was the stolen generation

Answer 179

1910-1970

Question 180

Psychological (Eudemonic)
well-being:
* Ryff (1989)
1. Self Acceptance
2. Positive Relations With
Others
3. Autonomy
4. Environmental Mastery
5. Purpose in Life (or Steger
Meaning in Life
Questionnaire: MLQ-P)
6. Personal Growth

Answer 180

• Eudemonic wellbeing is associated with
  increased survival e.g.
  Purpose in life in mortality e.g. in cardiovascular
  deaths & longevity
  , as is MIL -meaning in life

Further, MIL is associated with healthier
immune functioning among men with HIV
, more optimal levels of
neuroendocrine
& cardiovascular
markers of health slower rates of cognitive
decline
& Alzheimer disease progression
among older adults

Question 181

In terms of the relationship between optimism and good health, which of the following is not true?

a.
There has been correlation, but not causation, shown in the relationship between optimism levels and good health.

b.
There is a positive correlation between optimism levels and good health.

c.
Higher optimism levels may lead to better health, but we need more research to say this definitively.

d.
There is a negative correlation between optimism levels and good health.

Answer 181

There is a negative correlation between optimism levels and good health.

Question 182

what is health psychology?

Answer 182

Health psychology allows us to gain an understanding
biological, psychological, and social influences on how
people stay healthy, why they become ill, and how they
respond when they get ill.
* It examines the psychological and social factors that
lead to the:
* enhancement of health
* prevention and treatment of illness,
* evaluation and modification of health policies that
influence health care

Question 183

Intention (I) to perform any given behaviour (B) is a
function of two factors:
 Attitude towards performing the behaviour (Ab)
 Subjective norm (SN) concerning performance of the
behaviour

theory of reasoned action

Answer 183

Theory of Planned Behaviour
 Incorporates control beliefs
 Behavioural beliefs  favourable/ unfavourable attitude
toward the behaviour
 Normative beliefs  perceived social pressure to
perform/not perform the behaviour
 Control beliefs  sense of self-efficacy or perceived
behavioural control.
 With favourable attitudes and subjective norms,
and greater perceived behavioural control, the
stronger the person’s intention to perform the
behaviour in question.

Question 184

The Theory of Reasoned Action and the Theory of Planned Behaviour have a lot of things in common. But, there is one main difference between these two models. What factor does the Theory of Planned Behaviour account for that the Theory of Reasoned Action does not?

Select one:

a.
Perceived Behavioural Change

b.
Intention

c.
Subjective Norms

d.
Subjective Non-Norms

e.
Attitudes

Answer 184

a

Question 185

True or false: Those high in blunting want to know detailed accounts of their health in a blunt ‘straight-to-the-point’ style of communication?

Answer 185

Monitoring and blunting refers to how much information a person wants about their health. Those high in monitoring are highly vigilant and are continuously on the look out for additional information about their health and changes thereto. Typically, these people want more detailed information.

Blunters, however, want less information. They would rather know the general details without the nitty-gritty.

The correct answer is ‘False’.

Question 186

What do we call a design where we recruit participants who are not currently
exhibiting the outcome of interest, in this case Type II Diabetes, and then follow
them over time, and record who develops Type II Diabetes during the study?
a. Case-control study
b. Cohort study
c. Cross-sectional study
d. Treatment study
e. Matched control study

Answer 186

b- cohort

Question 187

What are the key differences between the health belief model (HBM) and the theory
of planned behaviour (TPB) model?
a. The HBM focuses on intentions, societal norms and behavioural control,
whereas the TPB is based on a cost-benefit analysis
b. The HBM only applies to aspects of disease prevention, whereas the TPB
encompasses all aspects of health and disease.
c. The HBM focuses on a cost-benefit whereas the TPB is on individual’s
intentions and societal norms.
d. The HBM is the only model that can be applied to chronic disease
management, whereas the TPB is best for understanding reasons why people
don’t cope well with challenging situations.
e. The HBM is a more rigorous model than the TPB.

Answer 187

C
The HBM is centered around an individual’s perception of the threat posed by a health issue and their evaluation of the benefits and barriers to taking action. It considers factors such as perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, cues to action, and self-efficacy. The cost-benefit analysis is inherent in weighing the perceived benefits against the perceived barriers to determine the likelihood of engaging in health-related behavior.

Question 188

Which of the following is a weakness of the Health Belief Model:
a. The HBM allows for very few health behaviours to be examined
b. The HBM does not explain very well habitual behaviours (like teeth cleaning).
c. The HBM does not very well explain irrational behaviours, like unsafe sex
with a stranger.
d. B and C only
e. All of the above.

Answer 188

d. B and C

Question 189

As an individual reaches old age, she is more likely to
a. use drugs
b. use problem-focused coping
c. use emotion-focused coping
d. cope
e. use direct action approaches

Answer 189

C

Question 190

Kobasa described hardiness as the ability to deal with stress without it causing a
problem for the individual’s health. According to her, a hardy personality has the
following features:
a. Optimism, perceived control and social support
b. Commitment, control and challenge
c. Protective factors and protective processes
d. Problem-focussed, emotion-focussed coping and reappraisal
e. a & b

Answer 190

b. Commitment, control, and challenge.

According to Kobasa, a hardy personality is characterized by these three features: commitment, control, and challenge. These factors help individuals effectively cope with stress and prevent it from negatively impacting their health.

Question 191

Some of Moos and Schaefer’s adaptive tasks faced by those with chronic illness
include:
a. Assessing the seriousness of the illness, denying the problem, & dealing with
pain
b. Dealing with procedures and the experience of being in hospital, whilst
maintaining an emotional balance & trying to stay young
c. Dealing with pain, procedures and the experience of being in hospital, whilst
maintaining competence and mastery, & preparing for an uncertain future
d. Assessing the seriousness of the illness, coping with the side effects of
medications & staying happy
e. Understanding the illness, confronting the problem and managing emotions.

Answer 191

. Dealing with pain, procedures and the experience of being in hospital, while maintaining competence and mastery, and preparing for an uncertain future

Question 192

Which of the following is NOT a good predictor of the transition from acute to
chronic pain?
a. psychiatric diagnosis
b. lack of social support
c. pain-prone personality
d. maladaptive attitudes and beliefs
e. job dissatisfaction

Answer 192

c