Org psych Flashcards
Campbell (1990) defined performance as behaviors or actions that are relevant for the organization’s goals and that can be measured in terms of the level of contribution to those goals. These behaviors can be distinguished from effectiveness, which is the impact that behaviors have on outcomes. He further considers performance of technical skills the core of the individual’s job-specific task proficiency.
what are the 3 determinants of campbells model of job performance
- Declarative knowledge- know what to do
- Procedural knowledge and skills – can actually do it
- Motivation
: An individual’s capacity to perform the core substantive or technical tasks central to the job. is know as what task proficiency?
Job-specific task proficiency
An individual’s capacity to perform tasks or execute performance behaviours that are NOT SPECIFIC to his or her particular job.
non-job specific task proficiency
Job performance is…
Job performance is not the outcome or result of behaviour and actions, performance is the action itself –employees performance is his/her behaviour not their outcome
3 types of performance are? P.A.P
- Proficiency
- Adaptation
- Proactivity
how can you improve job performance? 4 points
- Development – better training and feedback
- Individual differences – improve performance through better role allocation/selection
- Motivation and wellbeing – incentives, recognition, encouragement
- Environment/constraints- stress management, better communication, role clarity
The aim for career choice in this model is to achieve congruence and consistency between a person’s interests and work environment.
Holland’s Theory of Vocational Types
A situation that occurs when an actual criterion is missing information that is part of the behaviour one is trying to measure. is know as what
criterion deficiency
Max performance influenced by
cognitive ability and formal knowledge
A situation that occurs when an actual criterion includes information unrelated to the behaviour one is trying to measure is know as?
criterion contamination
whats the difference between criterion deficiency and contamination
criterion deficiency refers to a lack of inclusion of all relevant aspects of a construct in measurement, while criterion contamination refers to the inclusion of irrelevant factors that distort the measurement. Both can compromise the validity and accuracy of assessments or research findings.
if a study aims to measure job performance but only considers one specific aspect, such as task completion, while ignoring other important dimensions like interpersonal skills or creativity, it would suffer from criterion ______?
criterion deficiency -somethings missing
if a study measures employee productivity based on supervisor ratings but the supervisors’ evaluations are influenced by personal biases, such as favoritism or unrelated factors like the employee’s appearance, the measurement would suffer from criterion _____?
contamination - the result is contaminated by and unrelated point
what is the central tendency error?
Error in which raters choose a middle point in the scale to describe performance ever though a more extreme may be more accurate
what is the leniency error?
someone being unusually easy in their ratings
ehat is the severity error
unusually harsh in ratings
what is the halo errror
rater assigning the same ratings to multiple employees causing them to be similar - different to central tendency error
what are the 5 steps of job analysis
Plan- identify objectives
Prepare – identify jobs and organise the process
Conduct – select a method and collect data
Document – create job descriptions
Update- keep current
There are many personality tests and scales available. How do you choose among them?
Use valid and reliable tests that cover at least the Five-Factor Model dimensions
Why should you use a test that measures more than one aspect of personality when you are interested in only one?
Because behavior is usually a function of many different influences, not just one
What do personality tests measure?
a persons typical style
Why use personality tests to make employment decisions?
Because most workers and managers say that such attributes as “being a team player,” “remaining calm under pressure,” “being persistent,” and ¬ “taking initiative” are critical for success in almost any job
Do personality tests predict job performance? A: Yes. Q: Do personality tests predict performance in all jobs?
: Probably, but they are less predictive for jobs with little autonomy
What is the best way to use personality measures for pre-employment screening?
In combination with measures of technical skills, experience, and the ability to learn.
The main evidence to suggest that faking may be occurring is that applicant groups often have significantly more positive scores on given personality measures than employed groups
overt integrity test
A test asks questions directly about past honesty behavior (stealing, etc.) as well as attitudes toward various behaviors such as employee theft.
personality-based integrity test (or Covert integrity test)
A test that infers honesty and integrity from questions dealing with broad constructs such as conscientiousness, reliability, and social responsibility and awareness.
Theory based on the principle of a feedback loop that assumes that an individual compares a standard to actual outcome and adjusts behavior
individuals are seen as active agents who engage in purposeful behaviors to manage their environment and attain their objectives. The theory emphasizes the role of feedback loops, self-regulation, and feedback mechanisms
control theory
Theory proposed by Locke and colleagues in which the general concept of a goal is adapted to work motivation. In this approach, a goal is seen as a motivational force, and individuals who set specific, difficult goals perform better than individuals who simply adopt a “do your best” goal or no goal at al
goal setting theory
Motivational theory developed by Adams (1965) that suggested that individuals look at their world in terms of comparative inputs and outcomes. Individuals compare their inputs and outcomes with others (e.g., peers, coworkers) by developing an input/outcome ratio.
equity theory
According to efficacy theory, coming close to winning will motivate some people to try harder next time. what are 4 avenues to increase self-efficacy
- mastery experiences - Successful performance of challenging tasks strengthens beliefs in one’s capabilities
- modelling - People have a tendency to compare their capabilities with those of others. When individuals see someone similar to themselves (in terms of abilities, knowledge, etc.) succeed at a difficult task, their own efficacy beliefs can be strengthened.
- social persuasion - Individuals can be encouraged by others who express confidence in their ability to accomplish a difficult task.
- physiological states - When people experience the symptoms of stress or fatigue, they tend to interpret this as an indication that the task exceeds their capabilities, thus reducing their feelings of efficacy
can also work the other way to reduce feeling if this goes array
what is affective commitment?
an emotional attachment to an orginization
what is continuance commitment
perceived cost of leaving an organisation
what is normative commitment?
an obligation to remain at the organisation
what is distributive justice?
the perception of how fairly a reward is distributed ie; is someone getting more for the same job
what is procedural justice
is the procedure to make the decision fair – pay scales, criteria for bonuses – is it fair
what is interactional justice
sensitivity with whiche employees are treated ; linked to extent to which employee feels respected by employer
what is the difference bewteen informational and interpersonal justice?
Informational justice – what information were you given about procedures and their timeline
Interpersonal justice: extent to which people are treated with respect and dignity.
injustice in the workplace can lead to -4
- Retaliation
- Reduced effort
- Reduced motivation
- Impact on behaviour/attitudes
- Tendancy for work groups to seek homogeneity rather than diversity
- Group heterogeneity often enhances creative efforts and problem solving
- Homo groups initially work at higher levels but hetero work groups perform better over time
Bad behaviour at work is often labeled ‘interpersonal mistreatment’ or ‘interpersonal deviance’.
Rangers from mild (incivility) to serious (sexual harassment, agfression)
The ambiguous nature of incivility means the observer’s evaluation of incivility or inappropriateness can depend on their perspective. People may observe interactions that some people consider uncivil, rude or inappropriate while others don’t perceive them the same way. You need to consider their:
- identification with the instigator or with the target
- perceptions of power relationships
- situational or personal attributions (our perceptions about what caused the behaviour)
- perceptions of the impact on the target
A model proposed by Bowling and Beehr (2006) identifies four key factors that contribute to experiencing high levels of incivility at work:
Victim characteristics (e.g. aggressive, rude person might be treated with more incivility than others; what else?)
Instigator characteristics (e.g. a hostile person or a very stressed person might act in an uncivil manner to others; what else?)
Work characteristics (e.g. people are very overloaded, therefore stressed and tense and then act uncivilly toward others; what other work characteristics?)
Organisational characteristics (e.g. the organisation might have a “culture of incivility”)
- Incremental validity relates to a predictor’s ability to explain an outcome, beyond all other predictors. For example, if we have one predictor (A) that accounts for 25% of the variance in an outcome variable (job performance) and, when entered separately, a second predictor (B) also accounts for 25% of the variance. Because their influences can overlap with each other, it is also important to understand the amount of variance each predictor explains when considered in conjunction with the other. One scenario is that predictor A and predictor B account for much of the same variance, so predictor B can be said to have _______ incremental validity; it adds very little new information to the prediction.
Low
it adds very little new information to the prediction.
In another scenario variance explained by the two predictors overlap very little, so predictor B (entered second) can be said to have high incremental validity. But remember, the incremental validity of a given predictor will fluctuate from situation to situation
we want more separate circles and less overlap
- Correlation between test scores and performance on the job are often _____ in size
small/modest
). These modest correlations can be best explained by unreliability (less an issue with predictors, more with performance measures) and the ‘criterion problem’. This problem relates to the potential for both deficiency and contamination in our measures of job performance, which can limit the amount of variance that we can account for
- The process used by organisational psychologists to develop an understanding of a job by identifying the duties of the job and the KSAOs required to perform the job is called ____?
job analysis
* A primary aim of a job analysis is to combine the task demands of a job with the job’s required human attributes to produce a theory of behaviour for the job. That is, what is required to perform that job at the expected level. A job analysis is never about evaluating the performance of an individual already in that position and is always specific to that particular job.
- If you have no prior knowledge about the position for which you’ve been asked to perform a job analysis for, and that you have been told that you should initially minimise any contact with, or disruption to, incumbent workers, the best starting point for gathering information for the job analysis would be ____?
would be a content analysis of all existing documents related to the position. Most other methods would require significant contact with and/or disruption to staff. Completing a content analysis first would allow you to use a more targeted approach that would minimise the disruption to staff.
- If an organisational psychologist finds that many of the measures used to appraise performance for a particular job include information that is unrelated to what should be being measured, this is referred to as
criterion contamination
* The ultimate/ideal criterion is free from imperfection of measurements, whereas an actual criterion is not. However, in the real-world it is essentially impossible achieve the ultimate/ideal criterion.
- If a thorough job analysis of a position identifies multiple unique aspects of the job. Using all of this job analysis information to develop criterion measures would help prevent
criterion deficiency
* The ultimate/ideal criterion is free from imperfection of measurements, whereas an actual criterion is not. However, in the real-world it is essentially impossible achieve the ultimate/ideal criterion.
A comprehensive framework for studying work stress was developed by Kahn and Byosiere (1992). Their model presents several important factors in the stress process, including (3)
(1) work stressors (task and role stressors), (2) moderators of the stress process (individual differences, social support), and (3) strains, or the consequences of stress (burnout, heart disease)
Lack of Control/Predictability Control is a major theme in the literature on stress (Ganster & Murphy, 2000). Varying levels of personal control and predictability have clear effects on job performance and work stress (Logan & Ganster, 2005). As with any stressor, the individual’s perception of control or predictability determines his or her response to the situation, and such perceptions are affected by characteristics of the job and work environment. The scheduling and pace of work can influence feelings of control.
A model suggesting that two factors are prominent in producing job stress:
demand– control model
Component of demand– control model that refers to the workload or intellectual requirements of the job.
job demands (its demanding of me)
Component of demand– control model that refers to a combination of autonomy in the job and discretion for using different skills.
job control (how much control do i hav)
Occupational health psychologists often divide their approaches to stress prevention into three major categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions. *
what do the 3 involve
Primary prevention strategies aim to modify or eliminate stressors at work, and they are generally preferred over other interventions because they take an active approach.
Primary prevention strategies include redesigning the work environment, modifying Type A thought patterns, and providing flexible work schedules. * Secondary prevention strategies involve modifying responses to inevitable stressors. They include physical fitness, healthy eating, weight control, smoking and caffeine reduction, skills training programs, relaxation techniques, biofeedback, and social support at work. * Tertiary prevention strategies focus on healing the negative effects of stressors. They include employee assistance programs (EAPs) and the use of medical care, individual psychotherapy, and career counseling.
what are the 5 stages of group development
- Forming (orientation)
- Storming (conflict)
- Norming (structure)
- Performing (work)
- Adjouring (dissolution )
One goal of team development is to shorten the time teams spend in the lower productivity forming and storming phases
80% of team conflicts can be attributed to
unclear goals
H_______ & B________ model
Key contextual factor: subordinate maturity (job and psychological)
* Recommendations ― Decrease task behaviour as maturity increases ― Increase relationship behaviour until maturity reaches moderate level, then decrease ― At high maturity levels: laissez-faire
Hersey and blanchard 1977
_______ leadership * Relates to the way that inspirational leaders can motivate followers to strive for personal improvement and altruistic goals ― Often contrasted with transactional leadership
Inspires citizenship behaviours
Transformational
Training increases the probability of learning, and increasing the probability of better job performance.
Psychologists role in training:
Advisors
- Process – training needs analysis
- Content – stress management, leadership
Providers
- Contend and/or delivery
Evaluators
- Assessing effectiveness and utility
In jobs where the employee has a great deal of autonomy/control, personality is a more important factor comparted to more rigid environments
Personality Is more closely related to motivational aspects of work wheras intelligence is more related to technical aspects
Personality Is more closely related to motivational aspects of work wheras intelligence is more related to technical aspects
Although all learning does not result in improved performance, careful attention to training design, principles of learning, and work environment characteristics can greatly increase its likelihood of doing so. The point is that training increases the probability of learning, and learning increases the probability of better job performance (Landy, 1989). By understanding the factors that affect learning, training researchers and practitioners can enhance the performance of individuals, teams, and organizations.
Overlearning results in
automaticy or autopilot
The extent to which the task trained is similar to the task required on the job is referred to as
fidelity
The three goals of human factors are accomplished through the human factors design cycle, The design cycle begins with understanding the people and system they interact with, proceeds with creating a solution, and completes with evaluating how well the solution achieves the human factors goals. The outcome of this evaluation becomes an input to the cycle because it typically leads to a deeper understanding of what people need and identifies additional opportunities for improvement
considers three general influences on human behavior in guiding design are…
- Physical factors: This includes the design of physical environments, tools, and equipment. Factors such as lighting, noise, temperature, and ergonomics can all impact human performance and behavior.
- Cognitive factors: This includes the mental processes that affect how people perceive and process information, make decisions, and solve problems. Attention, memory, perception, and decision-making are all cognitive factors that can influence behavior.
- Organizational factors: This includes the design of work processes, procedures, and policies. Factors such as workload, training, communication, and feedback can all impact human behavior in the workplace.
this is described as a mismatch between the design of a system and the capabilities, limitations and expectations of the operator
human error
When a person makes an error, it is often due to a failure in the design of the ____
system
Human factors engineering seeks to minimize
the likelihood of human error by designing systems that are more compatible with human capabilities, limitations, and expectations.
The three goals of human factors engineering are
safety, effectiveness and usability
The relative importance of the three goals of human factors engineering depends on the application area. In high-risk systems, safety is typically the highest priority, followed by effectiveness and usability. In workplace design, effectiveness and usability may be more important, while safety is still critical. In consumer products, usability may be the highest priority, followed by safety and effectiveness.
Intuition is insufficient to guide design because it is based on personal experiences and biases, which may not be representative of the population that the design is intended for. Intuition can also be influenced by emotional or cognitive factors, which can lead to suboptimal design decisions. Human factors engineering relies on scientific evidence and systematic approaches to understand the needs, abilities, and limitations of users, and to develop effective and efficient solutions that optimize human-system interactions.
- The value model of diversity values each diverse element of the staff within an organisation for what they uniquely bring to the organisation. HR initiatives that support the value model include recruiting specifically with diversity in mind, ensuring career development is available for every member of organisation, providing diversity training, seeking input from diverse group members, providing support & networks for diverse group members and developing connections to cultural groups in the community.
- Unlike relational psychological contracts, transactional psychological contracts are characterised by low levels of trust.
what are the 4types of human error?
slip lapse - unconsious
mistake - concious
Violation
what is a slip, give an example
(response) plan or intent is correct but action fails information is acquired and processed but the response is imprecise – instead of the break I hit the accelerator
These errors arise when individuals lack the necessary knowledge or experience to solve a problem or make a decision. Prevention strategies involve providing comprehensive and ongoing training, mentoring programs, and ensuring access to relevant information and resources. Encouraging a learning culture and fostering an environment that values questioning and seeking help can also mitigate knowledge-based errors.
what is a lapse - give an example
Lapse (perception)–memory failure information is not acquired – inattentional blindness I didn’t see the car stopping
To prevent skill-based errors, implementing training programs that emphasize vigilance, attention to detail, and situational awareness can be helpful. Additionally, reducing distractions and implementing error-proofing mechanisms, such as checklists or redundant systems, can minimize the occurrence of these errors.
what is a mistake give an example
Mistake- (processing) action succeeds but plan or intent is wrong information is acquired but is not processed accurately and/or efficiently – car in front slowed faster than I expected “I THOUGHT IT WAS LIKE THIS”
errors occur when individuals follow the wrong rule or fail to follow the correct rule. Prevention strategies include providing clear and concise guidelines, offering regular training and reinforcement of rules, and encouraging open communication to clarify any ambiguities. The use of decision support systems or automation can also assist in reducing rule-based errors.
―Errors / Violations that have immediate consequence
―Usually performed by operational staff handling equipment
active or latent failure?
active
―Can be individual errors/violations, or their consequences, or broader/systemic problems
―Lie dormant in a system for some time until activated by events or individual errors,
such as:
Inaccuracies in operating manuals
Communication problems between departments
High workloads
Poorly thought-out policie
active or latent failure?
latent