Org psych Flashcards
1
Q
Campbell (1990) defined performance as behaviors or actions that are relevant for the organization’s goals and that can be measured in terms of the level of contribution to those goals. These behaviors can be distinguished from effectiveness, which is the impact that behaviors have on outcomes. He further considers performance of technical skills the core of the individual’s job-specific task proficiency.
what are the 3 determinants of campbells model of job performance
A
- Declarative knowledge- know what to do
- Procedural knowledge and skills – can actually do it
- Motivation
2
Q
: An individual’s capacity to perform the core substantive or technical tasks central to the job. is know as what task proficiency?
A
Job-specific task proficiency
3
Q
An individual’s capacity to perform tasks or execute performance behaviours that are NOT SPECIFIC to his or her particular job.
A
non-job specific task proficiency
4
Q
Job performance is…
A
Job performance is not the outcome or result of behaviour and actions, performance is the action itself –employees performance is his/her behaviour not their outcome
5
Q
3 types of performance are? P.A.P
A
- Proficiency
- Adaptation
- Proactivity
6
Q
how can you improve job performance? 4 points
A
- Development – better training and feedback
- Individual differences – improve performance through better role allocation/selection
- Motivation and wellbeing – incentives, recognition, encouragement
- Environment/constraints- stress management, better communication, role clarity
7
Q
The aim for career choice in this model is to achieve congruence and consistency between a person’s interests and work environment.
A
Holland’s Theory of Vocational Types
8
Q
A situation that occurs when an actual criterion is missing information that is part of the behaviour one is trying to measure. is know as what
A
criterion deficiency
9
Q
Max performance influenced by
A
cognitive ability and formal knowledge
10
Q
A situation that occurs when an actual criterion includes information unrelated to the behaviour one is trying to measure is know as?
A
criterion contamination
11
Q
whats the difference between criterion deficiency and contamination
A
criterion deficiency refers to a lack of inclusion of all relevant aspects of a construct in measurement, while criterion contamination refers to the inclusion of irrelevant factors that distort the measurement. Both can compromise the validity and accuracy of assessments or research findings.
12
Q
if a study aims to measure job performance but only considers one specific aspect, such as task completion, while ignoring other important dimensions like interpersonal skills or creativity, it would suffer from criterion ______?
A
criterion deficiency -somethings missing
13
Q
if a study measures employee productivity based on supervisor ratings but the supervisors’ evaluations are influenced by personal biases, such as favoritism or unrelated factors like the employee’s appearance, the measurement would suffer from criterion _____?
A
contamination - the result is contaminated by and unrelated point
14
Q
what is the central tendency error?
A
Error in which raters choose a middle point in the scale to describe performance ever though a more extreme may be more accurate
15
Q
what is the leniency error?
A
someone being unusually easy in their ratings
16
Q
ehat is the severity error
A
unusually harsh in ratings
17
Q
what is the halo errror
A
rater assigning the same ratings to multiple employees causing them to be similar - different to central tendency error
18
Q
what are the 5 steps of job analysis
A
Plan- identify objectives
Prepare – identify jobs and organise the process
Conduct – select a method and collect data
Document – create job descriptions
Update- keep current
19
Q
There are many personality tests and scales available. How do you choose among them?
A
Use valid and reliable tests that cover at least the Five-Factor Model dimensions
20
Q
Why should you use a test that measures more than one aspect of personality when you are interested in only one?
A
Because behavior is usually a function of many different influences, not just one
21
Q
What do personality tests measure?
A
a persons typical style
22
Q
Why use personality tests to make employment decisions?
A
Because most workers and managers say that such attributes as “being a team player,” “remaining calm under pressure,” “being persistent,” and ¬ “taking initiative” are critical for success in almost any job
23
Q
Do personality tests predict job performance? A: Yes. Q: Do personality tests predict performance in all jobs?
A
: Probably, but they are less predictive for jobs with little autonomy
24
Q
What is the best way to use personality measures for pre-employment screening?
A
In combination with measures of technical skills, experience, and the ability to learn.
25
The main evidence to suggest that faking may be occurring is that applicant groups often have significantly more positive scores on given personality measures than employed groups
overt integrity test
A test asks questions directly about past honesty behavior (stealing, etc.) as well as attitudes toward various behaviors such as employee theft.
personality-based integrity test (or Covert integrity test)
A test that infers honesty and integrity from questions dealing with broad constructs such as conscientiousness, reliability, and social responsibility and awareness.
26
Theory based on the principle of a feedback loop that assumes that an individual compares a standard to actual outcome and adjusts behavior
individuals are seen as active agents who engage in purposeful behaviors to manage their environment and attain their objectives. The theory emphasizes the role of feedback loops, self-regulation, and feedback mechanisms
control theory
27
Theory proposed by Locke and colleagues in which the general concept of a goal is adapted to work motivation. In this approach, a goal is seen as a motivational force, and individuals who set specific, difficult goals perform better than individuals who simply adopt a “do your best” goal or no goal at al
goal setting theory
28
Motivational theory developed by Adams (1965) that suggested that individuals look at their world in terms of comparative inputs and outcomes. Individuals compare their inputs and outcomes with others (e.g., peers, coworkers) by developing an input/outcome ratio.
equity theory
29
According to efficacy theory, coming close to winning will motivate some people to try harder next time. what are 4 avenues to increase self-efficacy
- mastery experiences - Successful performance of challenging tasks strengthens beliefs in one’s capabilities
- modelling - People have a tendency to compare their capabilities with those of others. When individuals see someone similar to themselves (in terms of abilities, knowledge, etc.) succeed at a difficult task, their own efficacy beliefs can be strengthened.
- social persuasion - Individuals can be encouraged by others who express confidence in their ability to accomplish a difficult task.
- physiological states - When people experience the symptoms of stress or fatigue, they tend to interpret this as an indication that the task exceeds their capabilities, thus reducing their feelings of efficacy
can also work the other way to reduce feeling if this goes array
30
what is affective commitment?
an emotional attachment to an orginization
31
what is continuance commitment
perceived cost of leaving an organisation
32
what is normative commitment?
an obligation to remain at the organisation
33
what is distributive justice?
the perception of how fairly a reward is distributed ie; is someone getting more for the same job
34
what is procedural justice
is the procedure to make the decision fair – pay scales, criteria for bonuses – is it fair
35
what is interactional justice
sensitivity with whiche employees are treated ; linked to extent to which employee feels respected by employer
36
what is the difference bewteen informational and interpersonal justice?
Informational justice – what information were you given about procedures and their timeline
Interpersonal justice: extent to which people are treated with respect and dignity.
37
injustice in the workplace can lead to -4
- Retaliation
- Reduced effort
- Reduced motivation
- Impact on behaviour/attitudes
38
- Tendancy for work groups to seek homogeneity rather than diversity
- Group heterogeneity often enhances creative efforts and problem solving
- Homo groups initially work at higher levels but hetero work groups perform better over time
Bad behaviour at work is often labeled 'interpersonal mistreatment' or 'interpersonal deviance'.
Rangers from mild (incivility) to serious (sexual harassment, agfression)
The ambiguous nature of incivility means the observer’s evaluation of incivility or inappropriateness can depend on their perspective. People may observe interactions that some people consider uncivil, rude or inappropriate while others don't perceive them the same way. You need to consider their:
* identification with the instigator or with the target
* perceptions of power relationships
* situational or personal attributions (our perceptions about what caused the behaviour)
* perceptions of the impact on the target
39
A model proposed by Bowling and Beehr (2006) identifies four key factors that contribute to experiencing high levels of incivility at work:
Victim characteristics (e.g. aggressive, rude person might be treated with more incivility than others; what else?)
Instigator characteristics (e.g. a hostile person or a very stressed person might act in an uncivil manner to others; what else?)
Work characteristics (e.g. people are very overloaded, therefore stressed and tense and then act uncivilly toward others; what other work characteristics?)
Organisational characteristics (e.g. the organisation might have a “culture of incivility”)
40
* Incremental validity relates to a predictor’s ability to explain an outcome, beyond all other predictors. For example, if we have one predictor (A) that accounts for 25% of the variance in an outcome variable (job performance) and, when entered separately, a second predictor (B) also accounts for 25% of the variance. Because their influences can overlap with each other, it is also important to understand the amount of variance each predictor explains when considered in conjunction with the other. One scenario is that predictor A and predictor B account for much of the same variance, so predictor B can be said to have _______ incremental validity; it adds very little new information to the prediction.
Low
it adds very little new information to the prediction.
In another scenario variance explained by the two predictors overlap very little, so predictor B (entered second) can be said to have high incremental validity. But remember, the incremental validity of a given predictor will fluctuate from situation to situation
we want more separate circles and less overlap
41
* Correlation between test scores and performance on the job are often _____ in size
small/modest
). These modest correlations can be best explained by unreliability (less an issue with predictors, more with performance measures) and the ‘criterion problem’. This problem relates to the potential for both deficiency and contamination in our measures of job performance, which can limit the amount of variance that we can account for
42
* The process used by organisational psychologists to develop an understanding of a job by identifying the duties of the job and the KSAOs required to perform the job is called ____?
job analysis
* A primary aim of a job analysis is to combine the task demands of a job with the job’s required human attributes to produce a theory of behaviour for the job. That is, what is required to perform that job at the expected level. A job analysis is never about evaluating the performance of an individual already in that position and is always specific to that particular job.
43
* If you have no prior knowledge about the position for which you’ve been asked to perform a job analysis for, and that you have been told that you should initially minimise any contact with, or disruption to, incumbent workers, the best starting point for gathering information for the job analysis would be ____?
would be a content analysis of all existing documents related to the position. Most other methods would require significant contact with and/or disruption to staff. Completing a content analysis first would allow you to use a more targeted approach that would minimise the disruption to staff.
44
* If an organisational psychologist finds that many of the measures used to appraise performance for a particular job include information that is unrelated to what should be being measured, this is referred to as
criterion contamination
* The ultimate/ideal criterion is free from imperfection of measurements, whereas an actual criterion is not. However, in the real-world it is essentially impossible achieve the ultimate/ideal criterion.
45
* If a thorough job analysis of a position identifies multiple unique aspects of the job. Using all of this job analysis information to develop criterion measures would help prevent
criterion deficiency
* The ultimate/ideal criterion is free from imperfection of measurements, whereas an actual criterion is not. However, in the real-world it is essentially impossible achieve the ultimate/ideal criterion.
46
A comprehensive framework for studying work stress was developed by Kahn and Byosiere (1992). Their model presents several important factors in the stress process, including (3)
(1) work stressors (task and role stressors), (2) moderators of the stress process (individual differences, social support), and (3) strains, or the consequences of stress (burnout, heart disease)
47
Lack of Control/Predictability Control is a major theme in the literature on stress (Ganster & Murphy, 2000). Varying levels of personal control and predictability have clear effects on job performance and work stress (Logan & Ganster, 2005). As with any stressor, the individual’s perception of control or predictability determines his or her response to the situation, and such perceptions are affected by characteristics of the job and work environment. The scheduling and pace of work can influence feelings of control.
48
A model suggesting that two factors are prominent in producing job stress:
demand– control model
49
Component of demand– control model that refers to the workload or intellectual requirements of the job.
job demands (its demanding of me)
50
Component of demand– control model that refers to a combination of autonomy in the job and discretion for using different skills.
job control (how much control do i hav)
51
Occupational health psychologists often divide their approaches to stress prevention into three major categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary interventions. *
what do the 3 involve
Primary prevention strategies aim to modify or eliminate stressors at work, and they are generally preferred over other interventions because they take an active approach.
Primary prevention strategies include redesigning the work environment, modifying Type A thought patterns, and providing flexible work schedules. * Secondary prevention strategies involve modifying responses to inevitable stressors. They include physical fitness, healthy eating, weight control, smoking and caffeine reduction, skills training programs, relaxation techniques, biofeedback, and social support at work. * Tertiary prevention strategies focus on healing the negative effects of stressors. They include employee assistance programs (EAPs) and the use of medical care, individual psychotherapy, and career counseling.
52
what are the 5 stages of group development
1. Forming (orientation)
2. Storming (conflict)
3. Norming (structure)
4. Performing (work)
5. Adjouring (dissolution )
One goal of team development is to shorten the time teams spend in the lower productivity forming and storming phases
53
80% of team conflicts can be attributed to
unclear goals
54
H_______ & B________ model
Key contextual factor: subordinate maturity (job and psychological)
* Recommendations ― Decrease task behaviour as maturity increases ― Increase relationship behaviour until maturity reaches moderate level, then decrease ― At high maturity levels: laissez-faire
Hersey and blanchard 1977
55
_______ leadership * Relates to the way that inspirational leaders can motivate followers to strive for personal improvement and altruistic goals ― Often contrasted with transactional leadership
Inspires citizenship behaviours
Transformational
56
Training increases the probability of learning, and increasing the probability of better job performance.
Psychologists role in training:
Advisors
- Process – training needs analysis
- Content – stress management, leadership
Providers
- Contend and/or delivery
Evaluators
- Assessing effectiveness and utility
57
In jobs where the employee has a great deal of autonomy/control, personality is a more important factor comparted to more rigid environments
Personality Is more closely related to motivational aspects of work wheras intelligence is more related to technical aspects
Personality Is more closely related to motivational aspects of work wheras intelligence is more related to technical aspects
Although all learning does not result in improved performance, careful attention to training design, principles of learning, and work environment characteristics can greatly increase its likelihood of doing so. The point is that training increases the probability of learning, and learning increases the probability of better job performance (Landy, 1989). By understanding the factors that affect learning, training researchers and practitioners can enhance the performance of individuals, teams, and organizations.
58
Overlearning results in
automaticy or autopilot
59
The extent to which the task trained is similar to the task required on the job is referred to as
fidelity
60
The three goals of human factors are accomplished through the human factors design cycle, The design cycle begins with understanding the people and system they interact with, proceeds with creating a solution, and completes with evaluating how well the solution achieves the human factors goals. The outcome of this evaluation becomes an input to the cycle because it typically leads to a deeper understanding of what people need and identifies additional opportunities for improvement
considers three general influences on human behavior in guiding design are...
1. Physical factors: This includes the design of physical environments, tools, and equipment. Factors such as lighting, noise, temperature, and ergonomics can all impact human performance and behavior.
2. Cognitive factors: This includes the mental processes that affect how people perceive and process information, make decisions, and solve problems. Attention, memory, perception, and decision-making are all cognitive factors that can influence behavior.
3. Organizational factors: This includes the design of work processes, procedures, and policies. Factors such as workload, training, communication, and feedback can all impact human behavior in the workplace.
61
this is described as a mismatch between the design of a system and the capabilities, limitations and expectations of the operator
human error
62
When a person makes an error, it is often due to a failure in the design of the ____
system
63
Human factors engineering seeks to minimize
the likelihood of human error by designing systems that are more compatible with human capabilities, limitations, and expectations.
64
The three goals of human factors engineering are
safety, effectiveness and usability
65
The relative importance of the three goals of human factors engineering depends on the application area. In high-risk systems, safety is typically the highest priority, followed by effectiveness and usability. In workplace design, effectiveness and usability may be more important, while safety is still critical. In consumer products, usability may be the highest priority, followed by safety and effectiveness.
Intuition is insufficient to guide design because it is based on personal experiences and biases, which may not be representative of the population that the design is intended for. Intuition can also be influenced by emotional or cognitive factors, which can lead to suboptimal design decisions. Human factors engineering relies on scientific evidence and systematic approaches to understand the needs, abilities, and limitations of users, and to develop effective and efficient solutions that optimize human-system interactions.
66
* The value model of diversity values each diverse element of the staff within an organisation for what they uniquely bring to the organisation. HR initiatives that support the value model include recruiting specifically with diversity in mind, ensuring career development is available for every member of organisation, providing diversity training, seeking input from diverse group members, providing support & networks for diverse group members and developing connections to cultural groups in the community.
* Unlike relational psychological contracts, transactional psychological contracts are characterised by low levels of trust.
67
what are the 4types of human error?
slip lapse - unconsious
mistake - concious
Violation
68
what is a slip, give an example
(response) plan or intent is correct but action fails information is acquired and processed but the response is imprecise – instead of the break I hit the accelerator
These errors arise when individuals lack the necessary knowledge or experience to solve a problem or make a decision. Prevention strategies involve providing comprehensive and ongoing training, mentoring programs, and ensuring access to relevant information and resources. Encouraging a learning culture and fostering an environment that values questioning and seeking help can also mitigate knowledge-based errors.
69
what is a lapse - give an example
Lapse (perception)–memory failure information is not acquired – inattentional blindness I didn’t see the car stopping
To prevent skill-based errors, implementing training programs that emphasize vigilance, attention to detail, and situational awareness can be helpful. Additionally, reducing distractions and implementing error-proofing mechanisms, such as checklists or redundant systems, can minimize the occurrence of these errors.
70
what is a mistake give an example
Mistake- (processing) action succeeds but plan or intent is wrong information is acquired but is not processed accurately and/or efficiently – car in front slowed faster than I expected “I THOUGHT IT WAS LIKE THIS”
errors occur when individuals follow the wrong rule or fail to follow the correct rule. Prevention strategies include providing clear and concise guidelines, offering regular training and reinforcement of rules, and encouraging open communication to clarify any ambiguities. The use of decision support systems or automation can also assist in reducing rule-based errors.
71
―Errors / Violations that have immediate consequence
―Usually performed by operational staff handling equipment
active or latent failure?
active
72
―Can be individual errors/violations, or their consequences, or broader/systemic problems
―Lie dormant in a system for some time until activated by events or individual errors,
such as:
Inaccuracies in operating manuals
Communication problems between departments
High workloads
Poorly thought-out policie
active or latent failure?
latent
73
Human information processing
ADVANTAGES/disadvantages
- Cand recognise situaitions
- Can respond rapidly
- Capacity to adapt to new information
- Draw on LTM
disadvantages
- Process limited amouts on info
- Working memory capacity is limited
- Working memory is transient
- Memory of past events can be flawed
74
what are endsys 3 leavels of situational awareness?
L1 – perception of critical elements in the environment
L2- comprehension of the current situation
L3 – projection of future status
Perceive ->comprehend ->anticipation
75
which test involves..Asks scenario- related questions, pertaining to perception, cmprension and anticipation. – i.e. what is the callsign of the next aircraft to land?
SAGAT – situational awareness global assessment test
76
The aim for career choice in this model is to achieve congruence and consistency between a person's interests and work environment.
Holland's Theory of Vocational Types
Since its arrival more than half a century ago, Holland's (1959) Theory of Vocational Types has had a lasting impact in applied psychology to this day.
This theoretical perspective proposes:
1. People can be categorised according to six vocational interests: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, or Conventional.
2. There are six types of work environments: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, or Conventional.
3. People are happiest when their vocational interests align to job roles and work environments.
77
what is the difference between supervised machine learning and unsupervised?
Supervised machine learning
Labelled data sets are used to learn classification or prediction
Models learn by detecting the underlying relationship between input data and output labels
- Can suffer from overfitting or inherit bias from datasets
Unsupervised
Analyse and learn patterns from unlabelled
Datasets – discover hidden patterns or data groupings
78
what is the hawthorne effect
the change in behaviour as a result of their awareness of being observed
79
what is the protean career model?
states that career success is more a matter of how satisfied individuals feel about their work and life with core values focused on freedom and growth not how much they make
80
what is the boundaryless career model
posits that individuals careers can transcend cultural and occupational boundaries, in other words individuals can take a boundryless set of potential paths to form and develop their careers
81
expectancy-value theory, a cognitive theory of motivation suggest that...
individuals make career choices based on expectancy and value. According to this theory, people are motivated to pursue activities or goals when they believe they can succeed (expectancy) and when they perceive the outcome as valuable or desirable (value).
82
whats the difference between the protean career model and the boundryless career model?
the Protean Career Model emphasizes self-directed career development, psychological success, and individual adaptability, while the Boundaryless Career Model emphasizes career mobility, flexibility, and the breaking of organizational and occupational boundaries. Both models recognize the changing nature of careers in contemporary times but offer different perspectives on how individuals can navigate and succeed in their careers.
83
what is motivation?
direction of effort
persistence
intensity of effort
84
what is the need norm
definition of fairness based on the view that people should recieve rewards in proportion to their needs
85
what is the merit or equality norm
definition of fairness based on the view that those who work the hardest or produce the most should get the most rewards based on their merits
86
what is the equality norm?
based on the view that people should receive approximately equal rewards
87
which form of justice is a greater predictor of pay satisfaction and overall job satisfaction
distributive
88
if person A accepts the goal of changing person B and can be observed ATTEMPTING, this is called _______ leadership
attempted leadership
89
if person B changes his behaviour as a function of person A's efforts its know as ____ leadership
successful
90
as a function of person B's behavioural change resulting from person A's efforts person B will be more satisfied, better rewarded and would have obtained a goal of mutual importance to persons A&B - this is known as _____ leadership
effective
91
what is participative leadership?
participative leadership involves involving team members in decision-making, valuing their input, and promoting collaboration and shared responsibility. It fosters a positive work environment, enhances team engagement, and promotes creativity and innovation.
92
Breifly describe French and Ravens 5 types of power
coercive
reward
legitimate
referent and
expert
Coercive Power: This type of power is based on the ability to punish or threaten others. It relies on the use of fear, negative consequences, or the ability to withhold rewards to influence others' behavior. For example, a manager who can fire employees or a parent who can ground their child possesses coercive power.
Reward Power: This power is based on the ability to provide rewards or positive incentives to influence others. It involves the control over valued resources, such as money, promotions, or recognition. An employer who can give bonuses or a teacher who can give extra credit exercises reward power.
Legitimate Power: This power comes from a person's position or role in a social structure. It is often associated with formal authority and is derived from the hierarchical structure of an organization or society. For example, a company CEO or a government official holds legitimate power by virtue of their position.
Referent Power: This power is based on the personal attractiveness, charisma, or admiration that others have for an individual. It is rooted in the respect, trust, and admiration that others feel towards a person. Celebrities, inspirational leaders, or influential public figures often possess referent power.
Expert Power: This power is based on the knowledge, skills, or expertise that an individual possesses. It is derived from a person's competence, experience, or specialized knowledge in a particular field. Doctors, professors, or technical specialists often possess expert power.
93
what is the difference between Holland's Theory of Vocational Types ant the person-fit-environment model?
Holland's Theory of Vocational Types focuses on the match between an individual's personality type and occupational environments, while the Person-Fit-Environment (PFE) model takes a broader approach, considering multiple factors such as personality, values, skills, and the fit between the individual and the broader work context. Both models provide valuable insights into career development, but the PFE model offers a more comprehensive understanding of the complex interactions between individuals and their work environments.
94
what is a possible intervention for 'slip' errors (Information is acquired and processed but
the response is imprecise ie accidentally pushes wrong button (perception)
better labeling or design ie big red STOP button
95
what is a possible intervention for 'lapse' errors? ie memory failure -Information is not acquired- lock keys in car (processing)
better design or procedure (checklist or similar)
96
what is a possible intervention for 'mistake' errors ie Information is acquired but is not processed
accurately and/or efficiently (processing)
(training, supportive culture so people want to learn and ask for help
97
what is a possible intervention for 'violation' errors -ie deliberate deviation from the rules/procedure -taking a shortcut
supervision, monitoring; penalties/rewards culture change
98
what is The Goal of Human Factors
Optimise the relationship between humans and the systems with which
they interact
99
what is an Error of Omission (to omit a task)
The task is not
performed when it
should have been
100
what is an Error of Commission (the task has been commissioned already)
The task was performed
on the wrong object
101
what are 2 steps to improve human performance (human factor)
good system design, ensure operators have the skills and knowledge
102
Levels of Analysis in Human Factors -system - operator- tech
the design of technology is Usually the most successful so Build technology around the capabilities and limitations of users
System is Usually the most difficult
interventions
involves Changes to the system over a
long period of time
Identify the
precursors to
error and take remedial action
Operator factors are Usually the most frequent interventions, Changes to the system over a
short period of time the training principles are Situated Cognition: Training in the environment in which the skills are to
be applied
Active Participation: Learners need to be actively involved in tasks
Integration: Human factors is not perceived as a distinct topic, but
another component of operational skills
103
Reactive versus Proactive Approaches
Reactive -reacting to something going wrong
Advantages
* Lower initial Costs
* Targeted response
disadvantages
* Greater long-term costs
* Occurrences
* May overlook information
proactive - doing it before something happens
advantages
* Lower long-term Costs
* Prevents occurrences
disadvantages
* Greater initial costs
* May overlook information
104
The Problem with Situational Awareness
It constitutes an outcome of interaction (performance) with the
environment (“you can’t predict if you haven’t engaged”). Therefore, the
quality of SA may simply be the product of the interaction or some other
explanatory variable (Stanton et al., 2001)
105
this career theory Views career development as a lifelong process influenced by individual's self-concept, occupational exploration, and implementation.
Life-Span Development Theory
to Career Development - super's development theory
Early life stages characterised
by exploration, later stages by
refinement / establishment.
106
this career theory focuses on the role of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and personal goals in career choice and development.
People learn by observing
others.
* Beliefs about likely success at a
task (self-efficacy) affect
motivation.
* These contribute to personality,
interests & ability → jobs
Social Cognitive Career Theory
107
Life Design & Career Construction Theory
Life designing concentrates on supporting
clients with self-making, identity shaping,
and career constructing
108
Contest mobility is
about working hard
and represents a merit-based explanation
for career success by enhancing one’s
competency through job-related
knowledge, skills, and abilities.
109
Sponsored mobility is
reflects a more
political explanation for career success
and is related to attracting and obtaining
sponsorship from others
110
factors effecting Human Adaptation to Transition – Schlossberg (1981)
- perception of the particular transition
-characteristics of pretransition and posttransition environments
-characteristics of ther individual
111
Psychological and cognitive phenomena can be understood as problems of ?
Computation
112
simulation or imitation of
human or animal intelligence and behaviour by a
computer or machine.
AI
113
an autonomous ENTITY which acts upon an
environment to achieve a goal using observation through
sensors
Ai AGENTS
114
- A _____ is a programable machine capable of
carrying out a series of goal directed actions automatically
(autonomous or externally controlled)
Robot
115
a subset of AI techniques which
learn from experience and training data
Machine learning
116
How do good job selection professionals handle personality test results?
Best practice in selection is not to select or cull applicants on the basis of personality test scores, but to use these scores as an information source that might guide what they ask during an interview.
For example, the employer might want to know how applicants high in Neuroticism typically handle the sort of high-pressure situations experienced in the job; answers may reveal whether the applicant has developed an effective strategy to manage their natural tendencies in that situation.
117
What are the 5 steps involved in creating a workplace training program?
conduct a training needs assessment
set specific objectives for the training
design training
deliver training
evaluate training
118
Kirkpatricks 4 levels of training evaluation are?
*Reaction- Post-training survey of trainee perceptions, e.g. “How well has the training prepared you to manage a team?
Learning
* Post-training test, e.g. “Describe this Profit and Loss statement”
Behavioural
* Changes to behaviour at work, e.g. feedback from subordinates
Organisational
* Outcomes at team/org level, e.g. Team performance
119
Situational strength theory
(Michel, 1977)
* Stronger cues (explicit policies, fixed
task processes, peer pressure) tend to
dictate behaviour, overriding personality
effects -- No chance for personality to show
…while weaker cues (high autonomy,
low supervision) will allow personality to
have an effect. -- allows a chance to use personality
Personality is the constellation of stable characteristics that relate to a
person’s tendency to behave in certain ways
― but context is also important
* Think about people as being high, low or average on each personality
trait
― Big 5 model is a good framework, but other traits exist
* Personality can influence employee self-selection, wellbeing and
performance
* Of the Big 5, conscientiousness is the best predictor of performance
― but remember the bandwidth-fidelity problem )
and also consider the
impact of situational strength and trait activation theories in how
personality might work in practice
Trait activation theory
(Tett & Burnett, 2003)
Some situations provide indications
(cues) that consciously or preconsciously prompt us to follow our
behavioural tendencies
In the absence of these cues, context
factors influence behaviour more than
personality
Personality is a tendency, not a guarantee
* Personality is less likely to influence behaviour when there are
clear rules/norms (“situational strength”)
* Some aspects of personality are only activated by certain cues
(“trait activation”)
* People learn new behaviours (e.g. coping)
120
what is the bandwidth-fidelity problem?
(The bandwidth-fidelity problem in workplace psychology refers to the trade-off between the breadth of information captured (bandwidth) and the depth of information captured (fidelity) when assessing and measuring psychological constructs in the workplace.
Workplace psychology researchers and practitioners face the challenge of selecting appropriate measurement tools that strike a balance between bandwidth and fidelity based on the specific objectives of their research or assessment needs. They need to consider the purpose of the assessment, the specific constructs being measured, the available resources, and the desired level of detail required to make informed decisions or interventions.
121
GRPI model of team effectiveness (Rubin, Plovnick, & Fry, 1977)
* One goal of team development is to shorten the time teams spend
in the lower productivity forming and storming phases
* The GRPI (Goals, Roles, Processes and Interactions) model
provides some insight into how to do this
― Goals: well-defined objective and desired results and
clearly communicated priorities and expectations
― Roles: well-defined responsibilities and acceptance of a
leader
― Processes: clear decision-making processes as well a
work procedures
― Interpersonal relationships: good communication,
trust, and flexibility
* Research has suggested that team conflicts can largely be attributed to
unclear goals (80%; Tichy, 2002)
―Ambiguity at one level can have cascading effects
122
Hackman’s Team Effectiveness Model (1983)
* What teams need to thrive are certain “enabling conditions”
- be a REAL team
a compelling shared direction
a strong structure
supportive context
expert coaching and guidance available
123
Team Effectiveness: Input-Process-Output Model
― Enables understanding of how teams perform & how to maximize performance
Inputs affect team outputs directly, and also indirectly through team processes!
Team Roles & Team Role Theory (Belbin, 1981,1993)
* Theory used by organisations to assess
and develop teams
― Teams made up of the brightest people
do not necessarily produce the best
outcomes
― Teams that are balanced in terms of the
roles represented among their members
will have highest performance
― 9 roles identified
* Team role theory based on Big Five
personality framework may be useful
(Fisher, Hunter, & Macrosson, 2001)
― Teams average scores on big five
personality dimensions are +vely related
to team performance
124
Limitations of teams
* Resources spent on early development stages
― To perform effectively, teams often require not just familiarity but
respect and trust; individuals can move to performing stage faster than
teams
* Low conflict teams can experience __________
* High conflict teams can reduce _________
groupthink; moral
125
Summary
* Different teams work in different ways
* Teams go through development stages
― time and effort needed for team to be effective
* There are a number of important elements to creating
effective teams
* Team effectiveness can be identified in terms of a range of
outputs, and influenced by a range of inputs and
processes
* Not all tasks and problems are handled better by teams
Summary
* Leadership involves more of a psychological element than
management
―Similar to the distinction between transactional vs
transformational leadership
* Leadership models have covered personality traits,
behaviours and when to apply them, relationships with others,
as well as capabilities and values
126
Manager
* Directs
* Provides guidelines
* Specifies targets for
followers to meet
* Monitors compliance with
procedures
Leader
* Motivates
* Provides vision
* Encourages followers to
set goals
* Inspires desire to achieve
broader goals
127
Models of leadership
Traditional
* Individual factors
― Trait theories
* Behavioural approaches
― Task vs Relationship focus
* Contingency approach
― Contextual application of
Task vs Relationship
Contemporary
* Leader-Member exchange
― Differential relationships with
followers
* Transformational leadership
* Authentic leadership
128
Behavioural factors in leadership
* Behaviours seem to fit two broad dimensions
_______-oriented (AKA initiating structure), such as planning,
organising, assigning roles/tasks, and monitoring progress
_______-oriented, (AKA consideration or
interpersonal) such as developing rapport, encouraging
participation, promoting mutual trust and support,
addressing the needs of individuals
task; relationship
129
Fiedler’s contingency model
Use task-oriented behaviours
Hersey & Blanchard’s (1977) model
Key contextual factor: subordinate maturity (job and
psychological)
* Recommendations
― Decrease task behaviour as maturity increases
― Increase relationship behaviour until maturity reaches moderate level,
then decrease
― At high maturity levels: laissez-faire
130
This type of leadership * Relates to the way that inspirational leaders can motivate
followers to strive for personal improvement and
altruistic goals
Transformational leadership
131
this style of leadership = Specifies behaviours to be
followed
* Sets minimum targets to be
reached to get rewards and
recognition
* Transactional contract
Transactional leader
132
this type of leadership involves Leading in a way that seems genuine (rather than projecting
a “fake” persona), while working towards a higher purpose
* Tends to be characterised by integrity, positive
self-concept, and motivation to learn
― Sincere, optimistic leaders who demonstrate
integrity may be more trustworthy
Authentic leadership
133
This will be hard but it’s
a great opportunity to
develop my skills and
show what I can do --- is an example of what kind of apprasial?
Challenge apprasial
perceive a situation
as an opportunity to learn and grow ==moderate stress response
134
I have other deadlines
to meet -- this is
going to delay me is an example of what stress apprasial?
Hindrance apprasial
Perceive a situation
as an obstruction to goals = high stress
135
The stress process involves
Characteristics of a situation* Appraisal of the situation and
its likely consequences
* Physiological and
psychological responses* Cognitive and behavioural
responses (coping)
Different levels of
stress might be due to
Different situation
characteristics
* Different reactions (appraisals)
* Different choice of responses
136
Characteristics of stressors :C.H.A.T U.P
loss of Control
Hindrance (eg role conflict)
Ambiguity (eg role ambiguity)
Threat
Uncertainty
Pain
137
Some positive functions of stress
positive function of Eustress is recognissed in many theories (yerkes-dodson model) (Bell curve)
Development of
resilience overtime
through practice and
meta-cognitive
processes
138
Primary interventions of work stress reduction - 3 (prevent the work situation)
Good job design
good leadership and performance management
good HR and change management
139
secondary interventions of work stress reduction -3 (deal - stress response capabilities)
stress management training
other learning and development practices
Health promotion programs
140
Tertiary interventions of work stress - 1 (further assistance - strain outcomes)
EAPs
141
Impacts of Teleworking: Work Attitudes & Performance
Meta-analyses revealed small positive association between telework and
positive organizational outcomes
However, high intensity teleworking (>2.5 days/week) harms relationship with
supervisors and was associated with lower job satisfaction Job satisfaction may plateau and decrease at more extensive levels of telewor
Meta-analyses revealed a weak positive association between telework and
work-life balance (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007; Allen et al., 2013)
§ But individual differences in preference for telework, how employees manage telework,
and quality and quantity of telework
* E.g., Preference for telework: Segmentors vs. integrators
142
There are three ways that AI can
approach, equal, overtake human
intelligence (Bostrom, 2014)
― They can be orders of magnitude
faster (speed superintelligence)
― They can be comprised of a larger
number of smaller “intellects”
working together (collective
superintelligence)
― It can be more creative or better at
problem solving (quality
superintelligence)
Automation refers to “the development and application of technology in the
workplace to produce and deliver goods and services with only minimal
human intervention”
Automation occurs on a continuum
in organisations
143
High levels of AI and automation create
unique challenges for organisations and
humans
§ Perceived loss of control (increased
stress and anxiety)
§ Erosion of skills due to lack of use (e.g.,
over reliance on autopilot)
§ Vigilance difficulties (fundamental human
cognition/attention limitations)
§ Boredom (reduced job satisfaction)
Three strategies for increasing worker acceptance of new technology in the
workplace
― Well-defined alignment between the
new technology and the organisation’s
performance objectives
― Smooth integration into the work
process with a transition period
― Shift focus from automation as a
replacement of human labour to
automation as augmentation of the
work experience
144
Bad behaviour at work is often labeled 'interpersonal mistreatment' or 'interpersonal deviance'.
“Low intensity deviant behaviour with ambiguous intent to harm the target, in violation of workplace norms for mutual respect” is aka what
incivility
The ambiguous nature of incivility means the observer’s evaluation of incivility or inappropriateness can depend on their perspective. People may observe interactions that some people consider uncivil, rude or inappropriate while others don't perceive them the same way. You need to consider their:
identification with the instigator or with the target
perceptions of power relationships
situational or personal attributions (our perceptions about what caused the behaviour)
perceptions of the impact on the target
145
Bad behaviour at work is often labeled 'interpersonal mistreatment' or 'interpersonal deviance'.
“Behaviour intended to hinder, over time, the ability to establish and maintain positive interpersonal relationships, work-related success, and favourable reputation” is aka...?
social undermining
146
Justice influences behavior by:
motivating employees and their commitment to the company
building trust - justice is closely related to trust in the workplace it can reeduce the likelihood of negative behaviours such as absenteeism or turnover
shaping organisational culture -his, in turn, influences behavior by fostering a sense of belonging, organizational identification, and alignment with the organization's goals.
147
When do employees become more vigilant for violations of the
psychological contract?
― During organisational change
― When conditions are uncertain or
ambiguous
― When trust is low
* But when costs of discovering a violation are high, people are less
vigilant and ignore violations
― E.g., few alternatives, can’t quit job
148
Provides specific mechanisms for reducing under-representation
of particular demographic groups is aka?
affirmative action
149
What is the ideal model for diversity
Value model
§ Value each diverse element of the organisation for what it uniquely
brings to the organisation
§ Research supports the value of diversity in organisations
§ Emphasising the value of diversity can also provide a more positive
rationale for AAPs and promote their acceptance
1. Recruit specifically with diversity in mind
2. Ensure career development is available for every member of
organisation
3. Provide diversity training
4. Seek input from diverse group members
5. Provide support & networks for diverse group members
6. Develop connections to cultural groups in community
150
(Motivation x Ability) Situational Constraints
= PERFORMANCE
“Motivation concerns conditions responsible for variations in
intensity, quality, & direction of ongoing behavior”
151
Person as a machine:
pushed by internal needs
pulled by environmental stimuli
In summary, the person as a machine theory portrays individuals as driven primarily by external rewards and punishments, while the person as a scientist theory emphasizes intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and the active exploration and understanding of the world.
automatic response by individual
responds to needs and drives
responds to external stimuli and reinforcement
152
Person as a scientist model
person as a judge
person as intentional
voluntary response by individual; analyses internal and external information
hypothesizes about the foundation for events and actions of others
develops goals and action plans
153
=person as a machine theory
According to this theory, individuals are viewed as passive recipients of external forces that drive their behavior. Motivation is primarily seen as the result of external rewards and punishments. Individuals are assumed to be driven by basic needs and desires, and their behavior is considered to be predictable and deterministic.
person as a scientist theory
This theory suggests that individuals are active participants in their own motivation and engage in purposeful and systematic exploration of their environment. It emphasizes intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and the desire to understand and make sense of the world. Individuals are seen as motivated by their innate psychological needs and engage in self-directed learning and problem-solving.
154
=person as a machine theory
According to this theory, individuals are viewed as passive recipients of external forces that drive their behavior. Motivation is primarily seen as the result of external rewards and punishments. Individuals are assumed to be driven by basic needs and desires, and their behavior is considered to be predictable and deterministic.
person as a scientist theory
This theory suggests that individuals are active participants in their own motivation and engage in purposeful and systematic exploration of their environment. It emphasizes intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and the desire to understand and make sense of the world. Individuals are seen as motivated by their innate psychological needs and engage in self-directed learning and problem-solving.
155
In a workplace setting, an employee who is motivated by the person as a ______ theory might be solely driven by financial incentives. They may work diligently to earn a promotion or a bonus, primarily focusing on the external rewards rather than finding intrinsic satisfaction in the work itself.
machine
156
Consider a student who is motivated by the person as a _______ theory. They approach their studies with a genuine curiosity and desire to learn, not just for the grades or external rewards. They actively seek out new information, experiment with different study techniques, and engage in critical thinking to deepen their understanding of the subject matter.
scientist
157
name the theory -- Motivations are influenced by three important cognitive evaluations
* Expectancy – the likelihood that you can, through your actions (e.g.,
by working hard) achieve the desired level of performance
* Instrumentality – the likelihood that if you perform at that level, you
will get a particular outcome
* Valence – the extent to which you value an outcome
… or the activity or performance
Action - Performance - Outcome
Expectancy or VIE theory
158
“Motivation” means all factors driving behaviour
―attitudes refer to thoughts/feelings which may or may not
influence behaviour
* Attitude constructs tend to be differentiated by specific
conditions and characteristics
―e.g., Organisational commitment
* Attitudes can have motivational aspects
―e.g., Engagement
* Values are about preferences and priorities
* Values can affect attitudes when an employee’s personal
values are not consistent with the values of the
organisation
―Person-Environment Fit theories
159
Types of Person-Environment Fit
Supplementary
* A match between the
characteristics of an
individual employee with
the characteristics of the
team or organisation
― Attraction-Selection-Attrition
Mode
Complementary
* The extent to which an
individual employee’s
otherwise-unmet needs
are fulfilled by the team or
organisation (or vice
versa)
― Theory of Work Adjustment
160
Why do job analysis?
Job analysis is useful in many areas of an organisation. The information can be used to:
Identify criteria for recruitment and selection
Identify training and development needs
Establish criteria for performance management
Assist with workforce planning
Guide remuneration
Manage organisational change
161
Main functions of job analysis are
- classify jobs
* identify the KSAOs required to
perform the job
This is used to assist organisations
to develop
* job descriptions,
* job specifications
* job evaluations
This allows organisations to recruit,
select, and reward qualified
workers
162
What is job performance?
Job performance is
the degree to which
an individual helps
the organisation
reach its goals
163
An employee’s performance is his/her behaviour, not
his/her outcomes
* There are many different performance behaviours
* Lots of different factors can influence job performance
― the most important one in any situation depends on what aspect
of performance we want to improve
* Performance criteria are subject to deficiencies
and contamination
Ratings: Judgement Errors & Biases
* Distribution
― Leniency, severity, central tendency biases
* Interpretation
― Halo (or “horns”)
― Attribution and fundamental attribution error
― Context (e.g., peer capability, situation/timing, rating order)
* Memory (ongoing performance vs. incidents)
* Policy variance (criteria weightings)
Performance management is a complex system
involving appraisal, development and feedback
* Try to appraise multiple aspects of performance
― all appraisal techniques have limitations, some more so
* For all the attention to effectiveness of performance
appraisal techniques, goal-setting and feedback tend to
be the most critical aspects of performance management
in modern/complex jobs
164
What is the Critical incident technique?
he Critical Incident Technique (CIT) involves identifying critical incidents or specific behaviors that are crucial for successful job performance. It can inform recruitment and selection by providing valuable insights into the behaviors and characteristics required for a particular job. CIT can help identify the key competencies, skills, and attributes that are critical for success and guide the development of selection criteria and assessment tools.
165
Which of the following types of training needs analysis examines what employees must do to perform the job properly?
a.
organisational analysis
b.
motivational analysis
c.
climate analysis
d.
task analysis
e.
person analysis
The correct answer is d. task analysis. Task analysis examines what employees must do to perform the job properly. It involves breaking down job tasks, identifying the knowledge, skills, and abilities required, and determining the specific training needs based on the job requirements. Task analysis helps in developing targeted training programs that address the specific job tasks and skills necessary for effective job performance.
166
The basis of contingency approaches to leadership is that
a.
the success of any given tactic depends upon multiple factors or situations
b.
any leadership tactic should be backed up by an alternate course of action
c.
leader success depends on the leader’s capacity to plan for unforseen events
d.
good leaders allocate resources that can be utilised when things go wrong
e.
the ability of one factor to influence another factor is inherently ambiguous
The basis of contingency approaches to leadership is:
a. the success of any given tactic depends upon multiple factors or situations.
Contingency approaches to leadership emphasize that effective leadership is contingent upon various factors such as the characteristics of the followers, the nature of the task or situation, and the interaction between the leader and the environment. Different situations or factors may require different leadership styles or tactics for optimal effectiveness. Therefore, there is no one-size-fits-all approach to leadership, and leaders need to adapt their behaviors and strategies based on the specific circumstances they encounter.
167
A transactional psychological contract is characterised by...
Select one:
a.
a low level of trust
b.
a high level of trust
c.
unconditional trust
d.
a moderate level of trust
The correct answer is:
low level of trust
168
According to the Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment, which of the following factors does NOT have a direct influence on an employee's job satisfaction
Select one:
a.
incentives
b.
needs
c.
demands
d.
values
e.
interests
The correct answer is:
c. demands
According to the Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment, demands do not have a direct influence on an employee's job satisfaction. The theory proposes that job satisfaction is influenced by factors such as incentives, needs, values, and interests. Demands, on the other hand, refer to the requirements or expectations placed on an employee by the job itself, including workload, time pressure, and task complexity. While demands can indirectly impact job satisfaction by affecting other factors like stress or work-life balance, they are not considered a direct influence on job satisfaction according to the Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment.
169
Over the past three years, Prime Time International has investigated 10 employee theft allegations. Each investigation has been dealt with differently: sometimes all concerned parties had a right to present their views, whereas in other cases only the accuser had an opportunity to present his side. Further, information on the inventory is often inaccurate. If employees are upset with the company’s approach, what type of organisational justice is most likely to be affecting their feelings?
a.
interpersonal
b.
informational
c.
distributive
d.
interactional
e.
procedural
e. procedural.
Procedural justice refers to the perceived fairness of the procedures, processes, and policies used in decision-making within an organization. In this case, the employees are upset with the company's approach to handling employee theft allegations, which suggests a concern about the fairness of the procedures followed in these investigations. The inconsistent treatment of cases, the limited opportunity for all parties to present their views, and the inaccuracies in inventory information indicate a lack of procedural fairness. Employees may perceive the process as arbitrary, inconsistent, and lacking transparency, leading to feelings of injustice and dissatisfaction. Therefore, procedural justice is the most likely type of organizational justice affecting their feelings.
170
Which of the following is the BEST example of Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory in career decision-making?
a.
Teddy does not believe he can complete a university degree because none of his family has been to university
b.
Tanya is applying for her next promotion so that she can achieve a salary increase
c.
Luke is considering a career change after 10 years in his current career area
d.
Sarah enjoys maintaining routines and she is attracted to administrative job roles
e.
Mike enjoys helping others and he is pursuing a career as a psychologist
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes the role of observational learning, self-efficacy beliefs, and the influence of social factors on behavior. In this example, Teddy's belief that he cannot complete a university degree because none of his family members have done so demonstrates the influence of social factors on his self-efficacy beliefs. Teddy has observed his family members and likely internalized their experiences and outcomes, leading him to doubt his own ability to succeed in obtaining a degree. This reflects the concept of self-efficacy, which refers to an individual's belief in their capabilities to successfully perform tasks and achieve desired outcomes. Teddy's belief is shaped by his observations and social environment, aligning with Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory in career decision-making.
171
The relationship between job performance and motivation can be best illustrated by:
a.
Performance = Ability X Motivation X Situational Constraints
b.
Performance = Ability X Motivation - Situational Constraints
c.
Performance = Ability + Motivation + Situational Constraints
d.
Performance = Ability X Motivation + Situational Constraints
e.
Performance = Ability + Motivation - Situational Constraints
e.
Performance = Ability + Motivation - Situational Constraints
172
A major assumption behind the forced-distribution method of performance appraisal is that:
a.
the meaning of job success is clearly defined
b.
supervisors agree on what constitutes success
c.
job performance is linearly related to tenure
d.
job performance is distributed normally
e.
it is most useful when the sample size is small
The forced-distribution method assumes that job performance follows a normal or bell-shaped distribution among employees. It assumes that the performance of employees can be categorized into predetermined performance levels or categories, such as top performers, average performers, and low performers, based on their relative ranking within the distribution. This assumption implies that the majority of employees will fall within the average performance range, with smaller proportions falling into the high or low-performance categories. The forced-distribution method aims to differentiate employee performance by fitting it into this presumed normal distribution and assigning ratings accordingly.
173
Which of the following statements provides the best formal or mathematical definition of a dynamical systems?
a.
A set of rules or equations that fully determine the future state of a system based on the average history of the system’s past states
b.
A set of rules or equations that fully determine the future state of a system based on the system’s current state
c.
A set of rules or equations that partially determine the future state of a system based on the system’s current state
d.
A set of rules or equations that partially determine the past state of a system based on the system’s future states
e.
A set of rules or equations that fully determine the past state of a system from the system’s future states
This definition accurately captures the essence of a dynamical system. In a dynamical system, the future state of the system is determined by the current state of the system, typically through a set of mathematical rules or equations. These rules or equations describe how the system's variables evolve over time based on their current values. By knowing the current state of the system and applying the defined rules or equations, one can completely determine the future behavior or trajectory of the system. This concept of the present state leading to the future state is fundamental to understanding dynamical systems and their mathematical modeling.
174
According to Expectancy Theory, the relationship between performance and attaining an outcome is called:
a.
Instrumentality
b.
Valence
c.
Force
d.
Expectancy
e.
relevance
Instrumentality is a key concept in Expectancy Theory, which proposes that individuals are motivated to perform based on their beliefs about the link between their performance and desired outcomes. Instrumentality refers to the perception that a certain level of performance will lead to specific outcomes or rewards. It is the belief that performance is instrumental in achieving desired outcomes and that there is a cause-and-effect relationship between the two. In other words, instrumentality reflects the perception of how likely it is that performance will result in the desired outcome.
175
What does the bandwidth-fidelity problem help us to BEST understand?
a.
Personality tendencies change over time
b.
Personality measures are more effective when they use imagery
c.
Measuring “self-discipline” may be better than “conscientiousness” in predicting procrastination
d.
Sales roles are best suited for people with a tendency for extraversion
e.
Measuring “self-discipline” may be better than “conscientiousness” in predicting overall job performance
Measuring “self-discipline” may be better than “conscientiousness” in predicting procrastination
176
Simone is a salesperson who, across the whole organisation, had the highest sales figure for the last quarter (of the year). Her organisation has many branches worldwide; Simone works in the branch based in the centre of the wealthiest city in the world. Given this information, what could be said about sales figures as indicators of job performance in Simone's organisation?
Select one:
a.
They suffer from criterion deficiency
b.
They are low in criterion relevance
c.
They suffer from criterion contamination
d.
All of the above
they suffer from criteria contamination
177
Which of the following is LEAST likely to be the direct objective of a job analysis?
a.
Evaluating employees’ suitability for promotion opportunities.
b.
Collecting information needed to make good hiring decisions.
c.
Redesigning employee tasks and goals to fit new organisational goals.
d.
Identifying Key Performance Indicators for a work role.
e.
Adapting the work environment for injured or disabled employees.
Evaluating employees’ suitability for promotion opportunities.
178
Which of the following is a precursor of a slip?
a.
Boredom
b.
Inability to integrate information
c.
Inability to filter information
d.
Time constraints
e.
Noise
time constraints
179
Which of the following is the BEST example of a mini-cycle according to Super’s Life-Span Development Theory to Career Development?
a.
Luke is considering a career change after 10 years in his current career area
b.
Tanya is applying for her next promotion so that she can achieve a salary increase
c.
Sarah enjoys maintaining routines and she is attracted to administrative job roles
d.
Teddy does not believe he can complete a university degree because none of his family has been to university
e.
Mike enjoys helping others and he is pursuing a career as a psychologist
Luke is considering a career change after 10 years in his current career area
180
Which type of performance measure provides the greatest criterion relevance?
a.
Objective measures of performance outcomes (e.g. sales figures)
b.
Subjective measures of performance outcomes (e.g. manager’s impressions of subordinate’s achievements
c.
Subjective measures of work behaviour (e.g. manager’s ratings of OCBs)
d.
It depends on the specific measure used and the specific job it is used for
e.
Objective measures of work behaviour (e.g. number of reports written
:
It depends on the specific measure used and the specific job it is used for
181
At what stage of information processing can errors occur?
a.
Processing
b.
None of these options
c.
Perception
d.
All of these options
e.
Response
all of these
