Neuroscience

Question 1

Theta activity in frontal and temporal cortex, and gamma in occipital cortex are examples of….

1. different frequencies of oscillation integrating activity across similar temporal scales.

2 different frequencies of oscillation integrating activity across different temporal scales.

3. different frequencies of oscillation integrating activity across different spatial scales.
4. different frequencies of oscillation integrating activity across similar spatial scales.

Answer 1

different frequencies of oscillation integrating activity across different spatial scale

Question 2

Cells in the medial entorhinal cortex that fire at regular spatial intervals as an animal navigates its environment are known as….

Answer 2

Grid Cells

Question 3

Cells in the hippocampus that fire when an animal enters a particular location in the environment are known as..

Answer 3

Place cells

Question 4

Afferent burst activity resulting in long-term potentiation if arriving on the excitatory phase of local theta rhythm, but not if arriving on the inhibitory phase is an example of….

1. item integration/segregation.
2. the importance of timing or co-incident activity in neural networks.
   3 integration of different brain areas or different spatial scales.
3. spatial coding in a network.

Answer 4

the importance of timing or co-incident activity in neural networks.

Question 5

Gamma activity nested in the theta wave is believed to allow for….
excitation in local, and inhibition in global networks.

inhibition in local relative to global brain networks.

inhibition across global brain scales.

item integration and segregation.

Answer 5

item integration and segregation.

Question 6

Beta activity is often seen at the end of trials in particular tasks and is believed to be involved in….

Answer 6

a item or memory clear out

Question 7

Frontal midline theta with an orbital-frontal and with an anterior cingulate distribution occur respectively during…

recollection and familiarity versions of a recognition memory task.

familiarity and recollection versions of a recognition memory task.

allocentric and egocentric versions of a spatial memory task.

egocentric and allocentric versions of a spatial memory task.

Answer 7

familiarity and recollection versions of a recognition memory task.

Question 8

Two visual stimuli arriving within one alpha oscillatory cycle, versus stimuli arriving on different cycles will facilitate respectively….

item segregation versus item integration

item segregation versus item segmentation

item integration versus item segregation

item segmentation versus item segregation

Answer 8

item integration versus item segregation

Question 9

1. A system for storing memories as different synaptic weights across a neural network is known as..

non-linear

distributed

linear

non-distributed

Answer 9

distributed

Question 10

In the human sensory LTP paradigm, the fact that only the “tetanised” orientation or spatial frequency of a stimulus is potentiated, is an demonstration of..

reversibility

associativity

specificity

generalisability

Answer 10

specificity

Question 11

It has been demonstrated that those carrying the met allele for the BDNF single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)….

have significantly higher visual memory scores, and lower amplitude LTP.

have significantly lower visual memory scores, and lower amplitude LTP.

have significantly lower visual memory scores, and higher amplitude LTP.

have significantly higher visual memory scores, and higher amplitude LTP.

Answer 11

have significantly lower visual memory scores, and lower amplitude LTP.

Question 12

Normann et al., demonstrated that the antidepressant (and SSRI) Sertraline….

increased LTP.

decreased LTD.

increased LTD.

decreased LTP.

Answer 12

Increased LTP

Question 13

Human sensory LTP has been shown to be….

increased in schizophrenia and depression, and decreased in autism spectrum.

decreased in schizophrenia, depression and autism spectrum.

decreased in schizophrenia and depression, and increased in autism spectrum.

increased in schizophrenia, depression and autism spectrum.

Answer 13

decreased in schizophrenia and depression, and increased in autism spectrum.

Question 14

According to one model of depression, stress causes………

an increase of BDNF release, and LTD-like response at glutamatergic synapses.

a reduction of BDNF release, and an LTD-like response at glutamatergic synapses.

a reduction of BDNF release, and LTP-like response at glutamatergic synapses.

an increase of BDNF release, and an LTP-like response at glutamatergic synapses.

Answer 14

a reduction of BDNF release, and an LTD-like response at glutamatergic synapses.

Question 15

In a hippocampal model of Alzheimer’s _________________ has been shown to reduce LTP.

peanut butter (PB)

fibreloid alpha (FA)

amyloid beta (Aβ)

centroid theta (CT)

Answer 15

Amyloid Beta

Question 16

2. According to Badzakova-Trajkov et al. (2009), the ACC and dlPFC are involved in respectively, …

attentional allocation and conflict detection.

conflict detection and motor selection.

motor inhibition and attentional selection.

conflict detection and motor inhibition.

Answer 16

attentional allocation and conflict detection.

Question 17

In the radial arm maze, when an animal can remember which arms have already been visited within a trial, this demonstrates…. memory

Answer 17

working memory

Question 18

Theories of working memory that assign different roles to the ventral and dorsal prefrontal cortices depending on the type of information being processed are known as…..

material specific theories.

process specific theories.

time specific theories.

space specific theories.

Answer 18

Material specific (specific to the type of material)

Question 19

Theories of working memory that assign different roles to the ventral and dorsal prefrontal cortices depending on the type of processing being performed are known as…..

time specific theories.

space specific theories.

process specific theories.

material specific theories.

Answer 19

what kind of PROCESSING = processing specific

Question 20

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex is believed to be particularly important for the………

spatial organisation of memories.

local/global organisation of memories.

temporal organisation of memories.

hierarchical organisation of memories.

Answer 20

temporal organisation of memories.

Question 21

Arising in the last 35-40 thousand years, anatomically modern humans (as distinct from more archaic humans) are sometimes referred to by archeologists as…..

homo sapiens superior

homo super sapiens

homo sapiens sapiens

the Bettermans

Answer 21

homo sapiens sapiens

Question 22

A species brain weight relative to body weight is known as the…..

encephalization quotient.

intelligence quotient.
, Not Selected

myelination quotient.

encephalization dividend.

Answer 22

encephalization quotient. EQ

Question 23

The fact that the foramen magnum points down in early some African hominin is usually taken as evidence against….

the fast train hypothesis.

the arboreal hypothesis.

the savannah hypothesis.

the slow boat hypothesis.

Answer 23

the savannah hypothesis.

Question 24

Select the appropriate options to best describe current beliefs about the cortical generators of the scalp electroencephalogram (EEG). Cortical pyramidal cells are arranged in an _______ field configuration, while non-pyramidal cells are in _______ field configurations. Consequently, neural potentials generated by _______ cells will tend to sum constructively, and are most likely to be the dominant contributor to the scalp EEG.

open; closed; pyramidal

closed; open; non-pyramidal

open; closed; non-pyramidal

closed; open; pyramidal

Answer 24

open; closed; pyramidal

Question 25

Which neural membrane potentials are understood to be the main contributors to the scalp electroencephalogram (EEG)?

Answer 25

Postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs)

Question 26

What role does signal averaging play in the derivation of event-related brain potentials (ERPs) from EEG data?

Summation of electrical fields. Signals generated by closed-field generators will be eliminated, while those generated by open-field generators will be amplified.

Filtering of the signal. Frequencies that are not related to the ERP will be eliminated.

Signal amplification. Potentials that are correlated with the timing of the event will sum, so that the ERP will be larger in amplitude as more trials are included.

Noise reduction. Potentials that are not correlated with the timing of the event will average destructively, revealing the ERP.

Noise reduction. Potentials that are not correlated with the timing of the event will average destructively, revealing the ERP.

Answer 26

Noise reduction. Potentials that are not correlated with the timing of the event will average destructively, revealing the ERP.

Question 27

According to the study of cochlear implant users reported by Sandmann and colleagues (Sandmann, P., Dillier, N. et al., Brain, 2012, 135, 555-568), what mechanism best accounts for different patterns of visual evoked potentials (VEPs) between cochlear implant recipients and control participants with normal hearing?

Compensation. People who are profoundly deaf learn to rely more on other senses, resulting in amplified responses to visual stimulation.

Neural atrophy. The auditory cortex in people with profound deafness may begin to atrophy (or degenerate), resulting in lower VEP amplitudes.

Neural plasticity. The auditory cortex of at least some people with profound deafness begins to respond to visual stimuli, resulting in atypical VEPs.

Electrical interference. The electrical fields generated by the cochlear implants – particularly their batteries – may interfere with the brain’s electrical fields, resulting in distorted VEP signals.

Answer 27

Neural plasticity. The auditory cortex of at least some people with profound deafness begins to respond to visual stimuli, resulting in atypical VEPs.

Question 28

Multiple sclerosis is a disease affecting the myelin sheaths that surround axons in nerves and cortical white matter. If a person has MS affecting their optic nerve, how would we expect VEPs to be altered?

The VEP would appear similar to one recorded from a person without MS, since the neurons would still generate action potentials.

The timing of the early VEP components would not be affected, but the N1 (or N150) and later components would be delayed.

The amplitudes of all VEP components would be reduced because fewer neurons are contributing to their generation.

The timing (or latency) of VEP components would be delayed because the action potentials would take longer to reach the visual cortex.

Answer 28

The timing (or latency) of VEP components would be delayed because the action potentials would take longer to reach the visual cortex.

Question 29

In the context of event-related brain potentials (ERPs), what is the “inverse problem”?

Answer 29

It is not possible to determine precisely and unambiguously the location of the brain source of a particular ERP component.

Question 30

According to a study by Schweinberger and Neumann (Schweinberger, S.R. & Neumann, M.F., Cortex, 2016, 80, 141-153), which face-related ERP component is typically larger in amplitude in response to the presentation of an “anti-caricature” than to the presentation of the true (“veridical”) face? “HEy its a face that matches my template”

Answer 30

P200

Question 31

According to the 2012 study by Wronka and colleagues (Wronka, E., Kaiser, J., & Coenen, A.M.L., Acta Neurobiologica, 2012, 72, 51-64), which pair of statements best distinguishes between the P3a and P3b ERP components evoked during a “novelty oddball” paradigm?

Answer 31

P3a is evoked by both targets and task-irrelevant oddball stimuli; P3b is evoked by targets only.

Question 32

According to the “Global Neuronal Workspace” theory of consciousness, which of the following statements best captures the distinction between “unconscious” and “conscious” processing of a sensory stimulus?

Stimulus-related activity that occurs before about 300 milliseconds from the onset of the stimulus is unconscious. Activity that occurs after about 300 milliseconds is conscious.

Stimulus-related activity in the modules of the temporal lobe is conscious. Activity in the modules of the parietal lobe remains unconscious.

Activity in the modules of the “processing network” is automatic and unconscious. Only when selected information is broadcast to the global neuronal workspace does it become conscious.

Activity in the subcortical sensory pathways is unconscious. Only when it reaches the hierarchically organized models of the cerebral cortex does it become conscious.

Answer 32

Activity in the modules of the “processing network” is automatic and unconscious. Only when selected information is broadcast to the global neuronal workspace does it become conscious.

Question 33

According to the “Global Neuronal Workspace” theory of consciousness, which ERP component is the earliest reliable signature of conscious awareness of a visual stimulus?
P3a

P3b

P1 (P100)

VAN (Visual Awareness Negativity)

Answer 33

P3b

Question 34

The “Global Neuronal Workspace” theory of consciousness (GNWT) implies that conscious awareness of a visual stimulus or even occurs in an “all-or-none” fashion – a stimulus either reaches consciousness or it doesn’t. A contrasting view is that consciousness arises earlier in processing than predicted by GNWT. According to this view, conscious awareness of a visual stimulus is reflected in which ERP component?

P3b

VAN (Visual Awareness Negativity)

P1 (P100)

P3a

Answer 34

VAN

Question 35

The “Predictive Coding” theory holds that the brain generates predictions, or hypotheses about the world which are compared with sensory information. Mismatches between the prediction and the input are then used to refine and update the prediction. Which of the following ERP components can be interpreted as evidence for this theory?

Mismatch Negativity (MMN)

P300 (including both P3a and P3b)

N400

All of the above are consistent with predictive coding.

Answer 35

All

Question 36

According to the “Predictive Coding” theory, why does an “oddball” stimulus (i.e., a stimulus that is rare or unexpected) generate a larger ERP response than an expected one?

Answer 36

The ERP reflects “prediction error,” or the discrepancy between predicted stimuli and those received.

Question 37

Referring to ERP studies of memory encoding and retrieval, which statement best describes the “subsequent memory effect” (SME).

Stimuli that evoke a large P300/P3b during the retrieval phase of the experiment are likely to have been presented in a bold font during the training/encoding phase of the experiment.

Stimuli that evoke a P300/P3b during encoding are likely to be categorised as “new” during the retrieval phase of the experiment.

Stimuli that evoke a larger P300/P3b during the training/encoding phase of the experiment are more likely to be remembered during the retrieval phase of the experiment.

Stimuli that evoke a more frontal P3-like ERP are more likely to be subsequently recalled than those that evoke a more parietal P3b.

Answer 37

Stimuli that evoke a larger P300/P3b during the training/encoding phase of the experiment are more likely to be remembered during the retrieval phase of the experiment.

Question 38

Libet’s famous 1983 experiment appeared to demonstrate that motor-system activity in the form of the Readiness Potential (RP) could be detected from the brain prior to a person forming the will to act (in this case, press a button). This finding has been widely interpreted as evidence against Free Will. Trevena and Miller (2002, 2010) offered a refutation of this claim. What was the basis for this refutation?

Trevena and Miller recorded the lateralized readiness potential (LRP) rather than the RP used by Libet. The LRP is more tightly associated with movement preparation and could only be detected after the person formed the will to act.

Trevena and Miller suggested that the sensory potentials evoked by touching the button contaminated the RP and made its onset appear earlier than it really was.

According to Trevena and Miller, the RP recorded in Libet’s experiment was likely overlapping with P3b activity generated when the person decided to press the button, so was not an accurate measure.

, Not Selected

Trevena and Miller critiqued Libet’s use of self-report as a measure of the moment the person became aware of the will to act.

Answer 38

Trevena and Miller recorded the lateralized readiness potential (LRP) rather than the RP used by Libet. The LRP is more tightly associated with movement preparation and could only be detected after the person formed the will to act.

Question 39

In their study of event-related lateralisations evoked during a visual search task, which component did Hilimire and colleagues (2011) associate with the processing of target-like distractor stimuli?

SPCN

N2pc

LRP

Ptc

Answer 39

Ptc

Question 40

1. Theta activity in frontal and temporal cortex, and gamma in occipital cortex are examples of….

different frequencies of oscillation integrating activity across similar temporal scales.

different frequencies of oscillation integrating activity across different temporal scales.

different frequencies of oscillation integrating activity across different spatial scales.

different frequencies of oscillation integrating activity across similar spatial scales.

Answer 40

different frequencies of oscillation integrating activity across different spatial scales.

Question 41

Cells in the medial entorhinal cortex that fire at regular spatial intervals as an animal navigates its environment are known as….

grid cells

border cells

head direction cells

place cells

Answer 41

grid cells

Question 42

Cells in the hippocampus that fire when an animal enters a particular location in the environment are known as..

head direction cells

border cells

grid cells

place cells

Answer 42

place cells

Question 43

Afferent burst activity resulting in long-term potentiation if arriving on the excitatory phase of local theta rhythm, but not if arriving on the inhibitory phase is an example of….

item integration/segregation.

the importance of timing or co-incident activity in neural networks.

integration of different brain areas or different spatial scales.

spatial coding in a network.

Answer 43

the importance of timing or co-incident activity in neural networks.

Question 44

Gamma activity nested in the theta wave is believed to allow for….

excitation in local, and inhibition in global networks.

inhibition in local relative to global brain networks.

inhibition across global brain scales.

item integration and segregation.

Answer 44

item integration and segregation.

Question 45

Frontal midline theta with an orbital-frontal and with an anterior cingulate distribution occur respectively during….

recollection and familiarity versions of a recognition memory task.

familiarity and recollection versions of a recognition memory task.

allocentric and egocentric versions of a spatial memory task.

egocentric and allocentric versions of a spatial memory task.

Answer 45

familiarity and recollection versions of a recognition memory task.

Question 46

In the lab demo of EEG, we placed three electrodes on the participant. One was a “ground” electrode that clipped to a sticker placed on the mastoid process behind one ear. There were two electrodes in the elastic headband. Why did these two electrodes only produce a single EEG trace?

We could have recorded an EEG signal from each of the electrodes in the headband, but chose to use only one for convenience.

The EEG setup we used allows us to record from either of the two headband electrodes, but not both at the same time.

The EEG that we recorded was the difference in voltage between the two electrodes in the headband.

We could have recorded three EEG signals, one from each of the three electrodes. but chose to use only one for convenience.

Answer 46

The EEG that we recorded was the difference in voltage between the two electrodes in the headband.

Question 47

The figure above shows the power spectrum of EEG recorded in two conditions. In one, the participant was awake and alert with their eyes open (solid blue line). In the other condition, the participant was awake, but was resting with their eyes closed (asked red line). EEG power is plotted against Frequency in Hz. What phenomenon does this figure illustrate?

Both conditions have a peak in EEG power at about 10 Hz. This is probably an artefact generated by the mains power lines.

There is an increase in alpha power (roughly 8-12 Hz) in the eyes-closed condition relative to the eyes-open condition.

There is more overall power in the eyes-closed condition, indicating that the brain is more active when the eyes are closed than when they are open.

There is a greater power at about 10 Hz in the eyes-closed than eyes-open condition, probably due to rolling eye movements that occur when the eyes are closed.

Answer 47

There is an increase in alpha power (roughly 8-12 Hz) in the eyes-closed condition relative to the eyes-open condition.

Question 48

Which of the following is the most serious impediment to the adoption of “brain fingerprinting” in the New Zealand criminal justice system?

The possibility of “false negatives” in which a guilty person is incorrectly found to have no guilty knowledge.

The high rate of “indeterminate” findings in the sample of parolees in the study by Afzali, Seren-Grace and colleagues implies that too many people are incorrectly classified.

The susceptibility of the technique to effective countermeasures that could lead to incorrect conclusions.

The possibility of “false positives”, in which an innocent person is incorrectly found to possess guilty knowledge.

Answer 48

The possibility of “false positives”, in which an innocent person is incorrectly found to possess guilty knowledge.

Question 49

The “Brain Fingerprinting” technique relies upon measurement of the amplitude of the P300 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP). In the context of of P300-based brain fingerprinting, which of the following statements is true?

In order to create stable waveforms for each trial type (irrelevant, target, probe), a number of repetitions of each must be recorded and the EEG signals averaged to create an event-related potential (ERP).

The P300 evoked by guilty knowledge is large enough in amplitude that it can be observed reliably observed in response to a single presentation of a probe stimulus.

In a sample of university students, the P300 evoked by a “guilty knowledge” probe could be reliably observed in response to a single presentation (trial). However, in a sample of parolees with criminal backgrounds, this was not true and averaging had to be used to differentiate between probes, targets, and irrelevant stimuli.

In laboratory conditions, the P300 evoked by a “guilty knowledge” probe can be reliably observed in response to a single presentation (trial). However, in “real-world” contexts this is not true, and averaging must be used to differentiate between probes, targets, and irrelevant stimuli.

Answer 49

In order to create stable waveforms for each trial type (irrelevant, target, probe), a number of repetitions of each must be recorded and the EEG signals averaged to create an event-related potential (ERP).

Question 50

Despite apparently outperforming traditional polygraphy, the “brain fingerprinting” technique has remained controversial, and has only been admitted as courtroom evidence a few times. The 2022 report published by Afzali, Seren-Grace and colleagues explored the potential use of EEG-based “brain fingerprinting” in Aotearoa New Zealand. Which of the following statements best reflects the conclusions of this report?

EEG-based brain fingerprinting is essentially “junk science” and should not be considered further.

EEG-based brain fingerprinting is a reliable laboratory that technique that should be deployed in high-profile cases in which guilt cannot otherwise be determined.

While a promising technique, EEG-based brain fingerprinting remains too unreliable to use in a legal context at this time.

EEG-based brain fingerprinting is an interesting idea that works on university students in a lab setting, but fails miserably when used to detect knowledge of real-world crimes.

Answer 50

While a promising technique, EEG-based brain fingerprinting remains too unreliable to use in a legal context at this time.

Question 51

According to the “brain fingerprinting” method of detecting guilty knowledge of a crime (e.g., Farwell & Donchin, 1991), how can P300 amplitudes distinguish guilty people from innocent?

“Target” and “probe” stimuli should evoke P300 responses from everyone, but the P300 evoked by probes will be larger than that for targets in innocent people, and vice-versa for guilty.

“Probe” stimuli representing knowledge of a crime should not evoke any response from guilty people, but will evoke a P300 from innocent people.

“Probe” stimuli representing guilty knowledge should evoke a strong P300 from guilty, but not innocent people.

“Probe” stimuli representing guilty knowledge should evoke a P300 from guilty people, while “irrelevant” stimuli should evoke a P300 from innocent people.

Answer 51

“Probe” stimuli representing guilty knowledge should evoke a strong P300 from guilty, but not innocent people.

Question 52

Wilson et al’s (2017) results with respect to LTP in ASD support the ________.

“Intense Flavour Theory” of Markram and Markram (2010)

“Small World Theory” of Markram and Markram (2010)

“Intense World Theory” of Markram and Markram (2010)

“Intense Music Theory” of Markram and Markram (2010)

Answer 52

“Intense World Theory” of Markram and Markram (2010)

Question 53

Wilson et al. (2017) showed that, relative to controls, ________ in people on the autism spectrum.

LTP was enhanced

LTD was enhanced

LTD was reduced

LTP was reduced

Answer 53

LTP was enhanced

Question 54

Norman et al (2007) showed that administration of an SSRI ________.

decreased the amplitude of LTP

increased the amplitude of LTP

increased the amplitude of LTD

decreased the amplitude of LTD

Answer 54

increased the amplitude of LTP

Question 55

Norman et al (2007) showed that, relative to controls ________in people with depression.

LTP was enhanced

LTP was reduced

LTD was reduced

LTD was enhanced

Answer 55

LTP was reduced

Question 56

Cavus et al (2012) showed that, relative to controls ________in people with schizophrenia.

LTP was enhanced

LTD was enhanced

LTP was reduced

LTD was reduced

Answer 56

LTP was reduced

Question 57

von Stein and Sarthein (2000) suggest that there is an inverse relation between the spatial ________ of neural integration and the ________ of neural oscillations modulating the integration.

scale, amplitude

scale, phase

phase, amplitude

scale, frequency

Answer 57

scale, frequency

Question 58

In experiments by Huerta and Lisman (1995), a stimulation burst at the ______ of theta induced ________, while the same burst at the _______ of theta induced ________of previously potentiated synapses.

peak, LTP, trough, depotentiation or LTD

trough, LTP, peak, LTP

trough, LTP, peak, LTD

peak, LTD, trough, LTP

Answer 58

peak, LTP, trough, depotentiation or LTD

Question 59

In response to a comment by O’Keefe and Burgess (Trends Cog Sci 3 (1999)), Kahana et al. (1999) note that..

in humans, theta-range oscillations are only seen in navigation tasks, and are generated in a number of extra-hippocampal sites.

in humans, theta-range oscillations are seen in a variety of tasks, and are only generated in the hippocampus.

in humans, theta-range oscillations are seen in a variety of tasks, and are generated in a number of extra-hippocampal sites.

in humans, theta-range oscillations are only seen in navigation tasks, and are only generated in the hippocampus.

Answer 59

in humans, theta-range oscillations are seen in a variety of tasks, and are generated in a number of extra-hippocampal sites.

Question 60

Kahana et al., Nature 399, 781–784 (1999) proposed that in humans _____________________ resulted in theta activity analogous to that seen in a rat hippocampus during exploration of its environment.

theta occurring during the Stroop task

theta occurring during a virtual navigation task

theta occurring during a working memory task

theta occurring during a recognition memory task

Answer 60

theta occurring during a virtual navigation task

Question 61

Reverse inference is an invalid inference in fMRI research that involves

Answer 61

inferring mental states based solely on task-related fMRI activation maps

Question 62

Running statistical tests on > 100 000 voxels is likely to produce many _____________, which can be minimised by _________________________

false positives, “smoothing” fMRI data
false negatives, “smoothing” fMRI data
false positives, correcting for multiple comparisons
false negatives, correcting for multiple comparisons

Answer 62

false positives, correcting for multiple comparisons

Question 63

In MRI, application of a ____________ causes protons to _________ around a main magnetic field (called ___).

radio-frequency pulse, decay, B0
radio-frequency pulse, precess, B0
radioactive tracer, precess, B0
radio-frequency pulse, precess, B1

Answer 63

radio-frequency pulse, precess, B0

Question 64

Standard task-related fMRI analyses are often described as ____________ because _________________________.

multivariate, BOLD signal is averaged across the entire brain
multivariate, univariate tests (e.g. a t-test) are performed at every voxel in the brain
massively univariate, BOLD signal is averaged across the entire brain
massively univariate, univariate tests (e.g. a t-test) are performed at every voxel in the brain

Answer 64

massively univariate, univariate tests (e.g. a t-test) are performed at every voxel in the brain

Question 65

In cognitive psychology, how are “representations” and “operations” distinguished?

Representations are the physical structures of the brain, while operations are the mental processes that occur within those structures.

Representations refer to mental processing and transformations, while operations refer to the information or content held in the mind.

Representations refer to the information or internal code held in the mind, while operations refer to the mental processes and transformations applied to that information.

Representations and operations both refer to the physical activities in the neural circuits of the brain and are, hence, interchangeable terms.

Answer 65

Representations refer to the information or internal code held in the mind, while operations refer to the mental processes and transformations applied to that information

Question 66

The “standard model” of working memory states that more __________ lateral prefrontal regions store ___________ information, while more _________ lateral PFC regions store ___________ information

anterior, object, posterior, spatial
anterior, spatial, posterior, object
dorsal, spatial, ventral, object
dorsal, object, ventral, spatial

Answer 66

dorsal, spatial, ventral, object

Question 67

Serences et al. (2009) showed that early visual regions play a role in visual working memory maintenance by using MVPA to show that

lateral prefrontal cortex is not active during the working memory delay period.

the delay period produces greater BOLD activation in early visual regions compared the inter-trial interval.
tions and colours) can be decoded based on the distributed patterns of activity in visual regions during the delay period.

both the delay period of a working memory task and the inter-trial interval produce very similar BOLD response magnitudes.

Answer 67

the contents of visual working memory (both orientations and colours) can be decoded based on the distributed patterns of activity in visual regions during the delay period

Question 68

The sensory recruitment model proposes that

information in visual working memory is stored in lateral prefrontal cortex
the prefrontal cortex plays no role in visual working memory
posterior brain regions contribution to visual working memory is due to their role in response selection
storing information in visual working memory recruits posterior brain regions that were activated during the sensation and perception of that information

Answer 68

storing information in visual working memory recruits posterior brain regions that were activated during the sensation and perception of that information

Question 69

Oscillations of 0.5 - 4 Hz are known as what?

Answer 69

Delta wave

Question 70

Oscillations of 4 - 8 Hz are known as what?

Answer 70

Theta

Question 71

Oscillations of 13 -32 Hz are known as what?

Answer 71

Beta

Question 72

Oscillations of 8 - 13 Hz are known as what?

Answer 72

Alpha

Question 73

Oscillations of 32- 100 Hz are known as what?

Answer 73

Gamma

Question 74

What functions are Delta waves associated with

Answer 74

Associated States: Deep sleep (non-REM sleep), unconscious states
Functions:
Delta waves dominate during restorative sleep, which is essential for healing and memory consolidation.
They are thought to help in regulating autonomic functions and are often linked to the homeostasis of internal systems.
Disruptions in delta activity can indicate problems with sleep or damage to certain brain regions.

Question 75

What functions are Theta waves associated with

Answer 75

Associated States: Light sleep, drowsiness, meditation, and creative processes
Functions:
Theta waves are observed during states of reduced consciousness such as early stages of sleep and deep relaxation.
They are thought to support memory encoding and retrieval, and are particularly associated with the hippocampus, a region involved in learning and memory.
Enhanced theta activity has been linked to creativity, as well as to emotional processing and decision-making under uncertain conditions.

Question 76

What functions are Alpha waves associated with

Answer 76

Associated States: Relaxed wakefulness, quiet thought, and meditative states
Functions:
Alpha waves typically arise when a person is awake but in a relaxed, non-stimulated state, such as when daydreaming or meditating.
They are often linked to the inhibition of sensory information, allowing the brain to rest and focus on internal thoughts.
Alpha activity is inversely related to cortical activity, meaning that higher alpha activity often signifies less task engagement or sensory input.

Question 77

What functions are Beta waves associated with

Answer 77

Associated States: Active thinking, focused attention, problem-solving, and alertness
Functions:
Beta waves are predominant when we are awake and mentally engaged in tasks requiring attention, such as reading, speaking, or critical thinking.
High levels of beta activity are associated with increased cognitive function, but can also correlate with stress and anxiety when excessive.
These oscillations are also thought to help in the regulation of motor behaviour, playing a role in sensory processing and voluntary movements.

Question 78

What functions are Gamma waves associated with

Answer 78

Associated States: Higher cognitive functions, such as perception, consciousness, and problem-solving
Functions:
Gamma waves are linked to high-level information processing and are believed to support the integration of sensory input from different brain regions, contributing to perception and conscious awareness.
They are important for working memory, attention, and the binding of sensory information into a coherent experience (e.g., combining sound and vision to perceive an object).
Abnormal gamma activity has been implicated in certain neuropsychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia.

Question 79

What phase of neural oscillations are associated with memory encoding and retrieval and the hippocampus

Answer 79

Theta

Question 80

Neural activity in the ___ wave range is INVERSLY related to activity i.e. higher blank waves = less cortical activity

Answer 80

Alpha

Question 81

What wave is mainly active when we are alert and conscious

Answer 81

Beta

Question 82

Which neural wave is associated with higher cognitive functioning, integrating sensory input, and memory and attention?

Answer 82

gamma

Question 83

What are the major themes explored in human neuroscience

Answer 83

Mind-Body Problem: How does the brain relate to the mind?
Organisation of the Nervous System: Can specific cognitive processes be localised to brain regions?
Philosophical Materialism/Monism: Psychological processes are mediated by brain processes, with continuity across species allowing generalisation​(neuro Lecture 1 canvas).

Question 84

Define cognitive neuroscience and explain its significance in bridging psychology and biology.

Answer 84

Scope of Human Neuroscience:

Studies the neural underpinnings of human psychology (perception, cognition, motor control, etc.) using a variety of disciplines, such as cognitive, social, developmental, and perceptual neuroscience​(neuro Lecture 1 canvas).
Cognitive Neuroscience:

Term coined by George A. Miller and Michael S. Gazzaniga, integrating data from experimental psychology, neuroscience, and pharmacology

Bridging Psychology and Biology:
The challenge is to connect neuroscience with psychology, which involves linking biological processes with psychological theories​

Question 85

Explain René Descartes’ contribution to human neuroscience and the concept of interactive dualism

Answer 85

Interactive dualism, focusing on the mind and body as separate entities​ – Two of everything except for the pineal gland so thought it was the most important believed the vertricles were important in a hydrolic function - came up with the reflex thing

Question 86

How did Thomas Willis’ work shift the understanding of brain function, particularly concerning the role of the cortex?

Answer 86

Shifted focus from ventricles to the cortex, establishing that psychological attributes are dependent on the cortex

localisation - more empirically based - mind is what brain does

Question 87

What were the key ideas behind phrenology, and how did they contribute (even indirectly) to the development of neuroscience?

Answer 87

The outdated theory that skull shape corresponds to psychological traits. However, Gall’s ideas on localisation laid groundwork for later neuroscience

Question 88

Describe Santiago Ramón y Cajal’s neuron doctrine and its significance in modern neuroscience.

Answer 88

Santiago Ramón y Cajal: Neurons are the structural and functional units of the nervous system, supporting the idea that brain processes are based on neurons​

Question 89

What is EEG, and what key discoveries did Hans Berger make in relation to brain activity and cognitive processes?

Answer 89

Measures electrical brain activity. Developed by Hans Berger, it became a key technique for investigating brain functions and cognitive processes​

Question 90

What are the philosophical assumptions of materialism/monism in neuroscience, and how do they shape our understanding of brain and psychological processes?

Answer 90

Overall, materialism/monism in neuroscience shapes our understanding of the mind as inseparable from the brain, guiding research and therapeutic approaches that focus on biological mechanisms to explain psychological processes.

Philosophical materialism or monism in neuroscience is the view that psychological processes, including cognition, perception, and emotions, are entirely the result of brain activity. This perspective assumes that all mental phenomena arise from physical interactions within the nervous system, without the need for non-physical explanations such as a separate “mind” or soul.

Question 91

What are the key functions of neural oscillations in brain activity?

Answer 91

Neural oscillations are rhythmic or repetitive patterns of neural activity in the central nervous system. Their functions include:
Integration of brain areas across different spatial scales.
Providing a background reference signal for timing cell discharge.
Facilitating network formation through coincident activity.
Item integration and segregation for cognitive processes​

Question 92

Describe the roles of different neural oscillation frequency bands (e.g., delta, theta, gamma) and their relevance to specific cognitive or motor processes.

Answer 92

Delta (<4 Hz): Typically associated with deep sleep.
Theta (4-7 Hz): Involved in navigation and memory processes, especially in the hippocampus.
Alpha (8-14 Hz): Often linked to relaxation or calm alertness.
Beta (15-30 Hz): Related to motor activities and sustained attention.
Gamma (30-60 Hz): Associated with cognitive processes like attention and perception​

Question 93

Which has higher voltage, delta or gamma?

Answer 93

delta, voltage is the opposite of freq. voltage is them all joining together to do the same thing - a Mexican wave rather than everyone clapping but not in sync = lots of activity(freq) but not together powerful

Question 94

Explain how oscillations contribute to the integration of brain activity across different spatial scales.

Answer 94

Different frequencies integrate activity across various distances in the brain, with higher frequencies like gamma operating at shorter distances and lower frequencies like theta supporting long-range integration

Question 95

What is the significance of hippocampal theta oscillations in navigation tasks and memory processes?

Answer 95

The hippocampus plays a crucial role in navigation and memory, with theta oscillations providing a reference signal for the timing of cell discharges. Phase precession allows for spatial and temporal coding by neurons, helping in processes like spatial navigation (place cells) and timing during tasks​

Question 96

Define phase precession in the hippocampus and its role in spatial and temporal coding

Answer 96

as the gamma nests in the theta, each gamma records activity for a different placehappening earlier as we get closer

Question 97

How does theta phase influence long-term potentiation (LTP) in neural networks?

Answer 97

Oscillations such as theta waves influence synaptic plasticity. For instance, stimulating at theta peaks promotes LTP (learning-related synaptic strengthening), while stimulation during troughs inhibits LTP

Question 98

What is the concept of theta-gamma nesting, and how does it contribute to item integration in working memory?

Answer 98

Theta and gamma oscillations are nested to encode multiple items in working memory. This mechanism helps in item integration and segregation during memory tasks​

Question 99

What is Hebb’s postulate, and how does it relate to the concept of synaptic plasticity?

Answer 99

Hebb’s first postulate: “Cells that fire together, wire together.” Repeated activation of cell A firing cell B leads to a strengthening of their connection.
Hebb’s second postulate: Neurons that repeatedly fire together form cell assemblies, which can persist after the initial triggering event, representing the memory​

Question 100

Define Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) and explain why it is considered a candidate mechanism for memory storage

Answer 100

LTP is a form of synaptic plasticity that strengthens synaptic connections based on co-activation of neurons. It is considered a strong candidate for the neural basis of memory.

Question 101

Describe the role of NMDA receptors in the induction of LTP.

Answer 101

LTP is induced by repetitive synaptic activity, resulting in an enhanced post-synaptic response. This process involves NMDA receptors and calcium entry into the post-synaptic cell​

Question 102

Why is it difficult to study LTP directly in humans, and what methods are used to observe it?

Answer 102

Studying LTP in humans is challenging due to the invasive nature of measuring it directly. However, methods like EEG provide non-invasive ways to observe LTP, particularly through changes in evoked potentials

Question 103

What is the significance of input specificity in LTP, and how does it ensure the precision of memory storage?

Answer 103

LTP is highly specific to the stimuli that induce it, meaning it only enhances the synaptic strength of neurons directly involved in the activity, rather than causing a general increase in cortical excitability​

Question 104

How can visual and auditory evoked potentials demonstrate LTP in human models?

Answer 104

Photic tetanus can induce LTP in visual evoked potentials, where specific changes in response amplitude can be detected post-stimulation.
Auditory evoked potentials also show LTP following auditory stimulation (e.g., using tetanus at 13 Hz

Question 105

What are the potential implications of LTP research for understanding and treating memory-related disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease?

Answer 105

LTP has been modulated in disorders like depression and schizophrenia, suggesting its potential as a target for treatment. Its role in memory disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease, is also a focus of ongoing research​

Question 106

What are the core executive functions associated with the frontal lobes, and how do they influence cognitive behaviour?

Answer 106

The frontal lobes play a crucial role in executive functions, which include skills like inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. These functions enable us to plan, make decisions, resist temptations, and adapt to new situations

Question 106

Explain the significance of Phineas Gage’s case for our understanding of the role of the frontal lobes in emotion and decision-making.

Answer 106

Phineas Gage’s frontal lobe injury led to dramatic personality changes, highlighting the frontal lobes’ role in regulating emotions, decision-making, and social behaviour​

Question 107

Describe the role of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) in the Stroop task.

Answer 107

ACC: Involved in error detection, attentional allocation, and conflict resolution, particularly in tasks like the Stroop task, where it helps manage competing responses.
dlPFC: Plays a role in conflict monitoring and attentional allocation during complex cognitive tasks​

Question 108

What is the Stroop task, and how does it demonstrate cognitive control?

Answer 108

This task measures cognitive control by requiring participants to name the colour of words that may be incongruent (e.g., the word “RED” printed in green ink). The ACC and dlPFC work together to resolve the conflict between the word meaning and the ink colour​

Question 109

Discuss the different roles of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) in working memory.

Answer 109

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) are key regions involved in working memory. DLPFC is associated with manipulating information, while VLPFC is involved in rehearsal and retrieval​

Question 110

What is the function of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in memory, and how does it contribute to planning and decision-making?

Answer 110

The prefrontal cortex (including ventromedial prefrontal cortex) links current information with past experiences and is essential for planning, organising episodic memories, and source memory (where and when events occurred)​

Question 111

explain the role of theta oscillations in spatial and recognition memory.
How are place cells and grid cells involved in theta rhythms, and what cognitive tasks are they important for?
Describe the relationship between theta oscillation amplitude and working memory load.

Answer 111

Generated by interactions between the medial septum and entorhinal cortex, with implications for spatial and recognition memory.
Linked with place and grid cells, which contribute to spatial navigation and memory.
Theta oscillations are prominent during tasks requiring memory scanning and recognition, and their amplitude increases with cognitive load.

Question 112

Alpha Oscillations:

What role do alpha oscillations play in attention and visual processing?
How do alpha oscillations contribute to the segregation or integration of stimuli during perception?

Answer 112

Linked to inhibitory processes and temporal resolution in visual tasks.
They play a role in attention, with higher alpha activity corresponding to suppression of irrelevant stimuli.

2 stimuli arriving on 1 alpha with integrate, if they don’t = segreation

Question 113

How does chronic stress impact LTP and LTD in the hippocampus, and what are the implications for mental health?

Answer 113

Chronic stress can shift the balance between LTP and LTD, impairing synaptic plasticity and contributing to mental health disorders like depression and schizophrenia.
The stress hormone cortisol influences plasticity through effects on the hippocampus.

Question 114

How do serotonin and BDNF affect LTP in individuals with depression?
What evidence supports the role of SSRIs in enhancing LTP and cognitive performance?

Answer 114

Involves dysregulation of serotonin (5HT), glutamate, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which affect LTP.
SSRIs like sertraline enhance LTP and are linked to improvements in memory performance.

Question 115

How is synaptic plasticity disrupted in schizophrenia, and what are the roles of dopamine and glutamate in this process?

Answer 115

Shows disrupted dopamine and glutamate systems, with reductions in NMDA receptor activity contributing to impaired LTP.
Genetic factors (e.g., COMT polymorphisms) and environmental triggers (e.g., cannabis use) play a role.

Question 116

Describe how synaptic plasticity is altered in ASD, particularly in relation to LTP and genetic mutations.
What evidence suggests that ASD is associated with hyper-plasticity?

Answer 116

Involves hyper-plasticity, with augmented LTP observed in animal models of ASD.
Specific genetic mutations, such as those in SHANK2, lead to impaired synaptic plasticity and altered neuronal signalling.

Question 117

How does amyloid-beta disrupt LTP in Alzheimer’s disease?
What are the early biomarkers of cognitive decline in Alzheimer’s, and how do they relate to changes in synaptic plasticity?

Answer 117

Aβ plaques disrupt LTP, contributing to cognitive decline.
Early detection of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) through biomarkers like memory and visuospatial can help identify individuals at risk of progressing to AD.

Question 118

How does an MRI work

Answer 118

a strong magnetic field is applied (B0) which causes all
the protons of hydrogen atoms to “line up” with the
magnetic field.
Step 2: apply a short radio-frequency pulse,
causing protons to tilt away from and then
rotate around B0 (like a spinning top)—this is
called precession
.
When the RF pulse is turned off, the protons
stop precessing, and they emit energy, which
can be detected by the scanner
Different tissue types have different
densities of hydrogen, and so
produce different levels of brightness
in a structural
MRI scan

Question 119

why cant you just run 170,000 t-tests on voxels

Answer 119

bound to get a 5% false positive, which would be a lot - dead salmon

Question 120

what can multivariate pattern analysis help with

Answer 120

drawing associations between patterns of brain activity and mental states
can create a correlation matrix - ie voxels commonly lit up for faces
mind reading - trump and kamala dots activating

Question 121

Magnetic signal of the blood differes according to how oxygenated it is, which is repelled or attracted by the magnetic field - oxygenated of deoxygenated blood?

Answer 121

oxygenated REPELS
deoxygenated ATTRACTS

Question 122

why would we need subtraction for a cognitive task in the MRI

Answer 122

if i have a task about memory, I can do a new task that doesn’t require memory, and then use that to subtract the things that are the same - removing variables

Question 123

What is forward inference

Answer 123

design exp that manipulate cognition the see how its correlated with differences in the brain

Question 124

What is a representation?

Answer 124

internal code
that “stands in” for the shape
that’s out there in the world.

Question 125

What are the 3 parts of baddeleys cognitive model

what are its criticisms

Answer 125

visuospatial sketchpad - central executive - phonological loop

How many buffers are there?
* Dissociations have been found for multiple visual features/properties..
* What about other modalities? (e.g. olfaction?)

Question 126

why do we think baddeleys two storage systems are separate? (visuospatiol vs phonological loop)

Answer 126

Double dissociation between the two storage systems:
* secondary verbal tasks disrupt information in the PL (but not the VSS)
* secondary visuospatial tasks disrupt information in the VSS (but not the PL)

Question 127

Dorsolateral = ______information
Ventrolateral = _______information

Answer 127

spatial
object

Question 128

If not storage, what is the PFC’s role in working memory?

Answer 128

Several possibilities exist:
1. PFC may, via reciprocal connections, maintain posterior regions in an
active state.
2. PFC may prevent disruption of WM representations by suppressing
sensory processing of environmental stimuli. In other words, it could be
involved in orienting attention to internal representations(as opposed
to external stimuli).
3. It could correspond to processes that have to do with response
selection

Question 129

What is “Cortical reinstatement”

Answer 129

Cortical reinstatement,
coordinated by the
hippocampus, ensures
patterns of activity that
were present at encoding
are reactivated during
retrieval

Question 130

What is the role of the entorhinal cortex

Answer 130

The entorhinal cortex is the “bridge” between
the hippocampus and the cortex—receives
inputs from a range of sensory and association
cortical regions, either directly or via perirhinal
and parahippocampal cortice

Question 131

How do grid cells map for spatial location?

Answer 131

Each grid cell fires not just at one spot (place cells), but at several spots arranged in a hexagonal grid across the environment.

Grid cells don’t work alone. A population of grid cells, each with its own specific hexagonal grid pattern, fires together as the animal moves. These patterns have different scales and phases (starting points), so the combined activity of many grid cells can uniquely code for almost any location within a space.

increase in activation depends on whether or not you are on ‘the 60 degree line’

Question 132

Beyond navigation and memory, what else is the hippocampus implicated in?

Answer 132

imagining the future
working memory
fine grained perceptual judgements

Question 133

What makes pyramidal neurons the primary contributors to EEG signals compared to other neuron types?

Answer 133

EEG measures brain electrical activity, capturing postsynaptic potentials primarily from cortical pyramidal cells due to their “open-field” orientation.

Question 134

Explain the process of time-locked averaging in ERP analysis.
Why is noise reduction critical in ERP studies, and how does averaging improve the signal-to-noise ratio?

Answer 134

ERPs are extracted from EEG by averaging time-locked responses to specific events, such as visual stimuli. This process reduces noise, making task-related signals more visible.

Question 135

Describe the role of the N170 component in face processing. How does it differ from the N250?

Answer 135

N170: A negative peak around 170 ms post-stimulus, primarily associated with face processing.
Linked to face identity recognition, showing increased amplitude for familiar faces or faces closely resembling a “target” image.

Question 136

How does the P200 component vary with face typicality, and what does this suggest about the cognitive processing of faces?

Answer 136

P200: Sensitive to face typicality, with higher amplitude for “average” faces – perhaps we recognise them by how far they deviate from the norm

Question 137

What distinguishes P3a from P3b in the oddball paradigm?

Answer 137

P3a is evoked by novel or distracting stimuli, while P3b responds to target stimuli in oddball paradigms.

Question 138

Describe the role of MMN in predictive coding and the significance of mismatch signals.

Answer 138

MMN is generated in response to unexpected sensory inputs, such as deviant auditory tones, and can occur without conscious awareness.

Question 139

what does the P3b represent?

Answer 139

P300 (P3b): Reflects “context updating” or cognitive-level prediction updating, particularly in attention and memory tasks.
enhanced P3b components for attended stimuli.

Question 140

How does predictive coding theory explain the brain’s processing of sensory information?

Answer 140

The brain operates as an inference organ, predicting external events through top-down processing (e.g., predictions originating in the frontal lobes).
Predictive coding proposes that perception is hypothesis-driven, with mismatch signals (e.g., MMN) reflecting prediction errors when unexpected stimuli occur.

Question 141

What is the Subsequent Memory Effect (SME), and how is it reflected in ERP components?

Answer 141

Subsequent Memory Effect (SME): The P3b amplitude is greater for stimuli later remembered, suggesting attention aids in forming stronger memory traces.

Question 142

Describe the Contralateral-Control Method and its use in studying visual short-term memory.

Answer 142

The Contralateral-Control Method leverages crossed neural pathways to analyze ERPs related to spatial processing, revealing lateralized responses in tasks like visual search and memory retention.

ie did we get activity on the LHS when using the RH

Question 143

Describe the role of P3b in the Global Neuronal Workspace Theory. How does this theory explain conscious awareness?

Answer 143

Proposes that conscious awareness emerges when information is globally broadcasted across a network, highlighted by the P3b component. This “workspace” allows selective amplification and sharing of relevant information among brain regions.
P3b is seen as a marker for conscious processing, especially in tasks like the “attentional blink” where subjects report awareness of stimuli after a delay.

Question 144

How does GNWT differ from traditional modular theories of the mind?

Answer 144

In summary, GNWT presents consciousness as an emergent property of distributed processes and widespread integration, whereas traditional modular theories posit that the mind consists of independent, specialized modules with limited interconnectivity.

Question 145

What is the role of the P3b in predictive coding, and how does it differ from the MMN and N400?

Answer 145

The P3b reflects “context updating,” while the N400 reflects “semantic updating,” as in cases of encountering unexpected language or meaning. MMN does not require any awareness

Question 146

How does the predictive coding framework explain perception?

Answer 146

Suggests that the brain acts as a prediction-making organ, where incoming sensory inputs are continuously matched against top-down predictions. Errors between predictions and actual sensory inputs lead to “prediction error” signals like the MMN, P3a, and N400

Question 147

What distinguishes structural MRI from functional MRI?

Answer 147

Structural MRI: Used for anatomical imaging by differentiating tissues based on hydrogen density.
Functional MRI: Captures brain activity over time by measuring changes in blood oxygenation.

Question 148

Describe how the BOLD signal reflects neural activity indirectly. Why is oxygenation important?

Answer 148

fMRI relies on the BOLD effect, which measures changes in blood oxygen levels that correspond to neural activity. Increased neural activity in a brain region leads to higher oxygenated blood flow, which fMRI detects

Question 149

Explain how task-related fMRI uses subtraction to identify cognitive processes.

Answer 149

Often used to identify brain areas involved in specific cognitive tasks by comparing brain activity across different conditions using the General Linear Model (GLM). Subtraction techniques help isolate task-relevant brain activity

Question 150

Describe how MVPA can be used to decode mental states?

Answer 150

A method to analyze patterns of brain activity across distributed networks, often used to identify specific mental states. MVPA can even “decode” these states by using machine learning to recognize patterns linked to different stimuli.

Question 151

What are some advantages of using MVPA in studying distributed brain activity?

Answer 151

MVPA allows researchers to investigate the distributed patterns of brain activity rather than individual voxels, enabling the identification of mental states through brain activity patterns.
This method has drawn parallels between AI (e.g., word embeddings) and human brain representations, suggesting a systematic relationship between external stimuli and brain activity.

Question 152

Why is it problematic to interpret fMRI activation as evidence that a region is essential for a cognitive function?

Answer 152

fMRI is correlational, meaning that observed activation in a region does not confirm that it is essential or sufficient for a specific function.

any given region may be involved in many processes , its not a 1-1 mapping

Question 153

Describe the difference between forward and reverse inference in fMRI studies and explain why reverse inference is unreliable.

Answer 153

Issues such as reverse inference (inferring cognitive processes from brain activation) can lead to incorrect conclusions because brain regions often support multiple functions.

fwd means we take a given location and try to create activation

Question 154

Explain the double dissociation (the separation of parts) between verbal and visual-spatial storage systems in Baddeley’s model.

Answer 154

Proposes two separate systems for verbal (phonological loop) and visual-spatial (visuo-spatial sketchpad) information, managed by a central executive.
Studies suggest double dissociation (independent disruption) of these systems, supporting Baddeley’s model. - one loop doesn’t affect the other suggesting they are separate

Question 155

What are some criticisms of Baddeley’s model regarding its application to other sensory modalities?

Answer 155

doesn’t account for all the other sensory modalities

Question 156

How does the sensory recruitment model propose that WM content is maintained after sensory input ends?

Answer 156

Suggests that WM is not stored exclusively in PFC but relies on sensory and perceptual regions to maintain information after sensory input ends.
MVPA studies show that distributed patterns in early visual regions hold WM content, indicating WM representations may persist in sensory areas rather than transferring to PFC.

Question 157

According to the sensory recruitment model, what role does the PFC play in WM if it does not serve as the primary storage site?

Answer 157

Instead of storage, the PFC may play a role in maintaining active states in posterior sensory regions and directing attention to internal representations by suppressing sensory input, thereby protecting WM from interference.

Question 158

Describe the role of the entorhinal cortex in connecting the hippocampus with the cortex.

Answer 158

The entorhinal cortex serves as a bridge, integrating input from the cortex and relaying it to the hippocampus.

Question 159

What are the primary functions of the hippocampus, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortex within the MTL?

Answer 159

Episodic memory, spatial navigation, future imagination, perception

Question 160

Explain how patient H.M. contributed to understanding the role of the hippocampus in memory.

Answer 160

The hippocampus is critical for episodic memory, as shown in amnesia cases like patient H.M., and is active during both encoding and retrieval stages, coordinating cortical activity patterns for memory reactivation.
When HM HC was removed he lost the ability to form memories

Question 161

What is cortical reinstatement, and how does the hippocampus facilitate this process during memory retrieval?

Answer 161

HC is active during both encoding and retrieval stages, coordinating cortical activity patterns for memory reactivation. by reactivation the same pattern

Question 162

What is the function of place cells and grid cells, and how do they contribute to spatial mapping?

How does direction and speed modulate grid-cell-like responses in the entorhinal cortex, according to fMRI studies?

Answer 162

The hippocampus is essential for spatial mapping through place cells that activate in specific locations and grid cells in the entorhinal cortex that provide a hexagonal spatial representation.

Research, including VR-based fMRI studies, shows that direction and speed influence entorhinal activation, with pronounced effects during faster motion aligned with grid-cell patterns.

Question 163

How does hippocampal activation during imagining future events

Answer 163

Addis and colleagues (2007), demonstrate that during tasks requiring future imagination, the hippocampus is more active compared to tasks that involve recalling past events. This differential activation highlights the hippocampus’s role in “constructing” new, rather than merely “retrieving” old, scenarios.

The hippocampus helps piece together elements from past experiences (like people, places, and events) to create new imagined scenarios. This is known as scene construction, where the brain synthesizes spatial and contextual details to form coherent mental images of potential future events.

By enabling the flexible recombination of elements from past memories, the hippocampus allows us to create novel scenarios. Patients with hippocampal damage often struggle with future-oriented thinking, which can impair their ability to make decisions, engage in long-term planning, and visualize personal goals.

Question 164

Clinical classification of Huntingtons disease, of when you become symptomatic is based entirely on what ……

Answer 164

presence of abnormal motor symptoms BUT peoplewho work in the field will tell you this is not the case, and may have one of the other domains showing first

Question 165

What is Marrs 3 Levels of Analysis (not identification)

Answer 165

Computational Level: Defines the “what” - the goal of the system.
Algorithmic Level: Explains the “how” - the processes and representations used to achieve the goal.
Implementational Level: Describes the “where” - the physical substrate that performs the process.

Question 166

What are some hippocampal functions 3x

Answer 166

Pattern Separation: Distinguishes between similar events in memory, especially in the dentate gyrus (DG), which creates distinct neural patterns for similar inputs.
Pattern Completion: A partial cue can trigger the full memory of an event, aided by hippocampal interactions with cortical areas to reconstruct missing information.
Relational Processing: Integrates various sensory inputs across time and space, vital for complex memory and spatial navigation.

Question 167

What is event segmentation

Answer 167

The brain organizes continuous sensory input into discrete events, a process relying on predictive coding. This involves updating mental “event models” when there is a mismatch between expected and actual sensory input.
The brain uses predictive coding to anticipate incoming sensory information. When unexpected changes occur, the brain detects prediction errors, triggering a reset and forming a new event model.
Event boundaries (e.g., a scene change in a movie) represent shifts where the brain updates its model, strengthening memory encoding.

Question 168

Explain the role of the hippocampus in pattern separation. How is this process essential for distinguishing between similar experiences?

Answer 168

Distinguishes between similar events in memory, especially in the dentate gyrus (DG), which creates distinct neural patterns for similar inputs.
patterns are encoded in a way that allows for them to be distinguishable
if memories are too similar you only can recall the gist - pattern separation makes things as dissimilar as possible

Study - videos around Paris - first few rounds had a similar pattern but as they learned the routes they HC gave different pattern representations
Studies show the DG responds uniquely to similar but non-identical stimuli, aiding in memory specificity.

Question 169

What is pattern completion, and how does it enable the brain to recall an entire event from a partial cue? and the significance of TMS findings in supporting this process.

Answer 169

Enables retrieval of a full memory from partial cues. If presented with a cue, the hippocampus can reassemble associated details, completing the memory pattern.
Research using TMS to manipulate connectivity shows that hippocampal activation supports reactivation of the original memory patterns during recall.

Question 170

How does the brain decide when one event ends, and another begins? What are “event boundaries” and their significance for memory?

Answer 170

The brain organizes continuous sensory input into discrete events, a process relying on predictive coding. This involves updating mental “event models” when there is a mismatch between expected and actual sensory input.

very strong consensus on where event boundaries are among participants
often studies in a natural setting making it hard to control variables, bt good for validity
increase in HC activation at event boundary suggesting increased encoding of event boundary into episodic memory is linked to hippocampal activation

Question 171

What is relational processing? why is it essential for memory and navigation?

Answer 171

Integrates information across time and space, supporting episodic memory and spatial navigation.
Studies have shown that hippocampal activation increases for tasks requiring associations (e.g., remembering an object and its context).
Sudy - hippocampal amnesics showed no difference for recall or location but had trouble putting the two together - which is a deficit specific to relational processing

Question 172

How does impaired event segmentation contribute to memory deficits in clinical populations like Alzheimer’s?

Answer 172

event seg is related to memory performance, in AZ or these with memory deficits, the conflict that encourages the reset of the model may be affected - maybe they have trouble ‘updating’ which may be related to the fact they find it hard to change tasks

Question 173

What is cortical reinstatement, and how does the hippocampus facilitate this during memory retrieval?

Answer 173

The hippocampus facilitates encoding and retrieval by coordinating cortical reinstatement, or the recreation of memory patterns during recall.

Question 174

How does the brain age normally?

Answer 174

cog changes can occur in most domains from 30’s sometimes 20’s
over the life time there is a decline in speed, memory and reasoning BUT an incline or stable vocab and semantic knowledge as we acquire more knowledge

as we age lateral ventricles get bigger while hippo and thalamus decrease, structural integrity of white matter breaks down

Question 175

why dont we always notice a decline in cog abilities/neurodegeneration

Answer 175

You may not notice changes in daily life because you don’t usually get challenged to the level you would in intensive cog testing.
people could be using compensation

Question 176

the majority of studies in cognitive decline are cross-sectional; why is longitudinal better ?

Answer 176

cross-sectional may be affected by cohort differences, and may OVERESTIMATE age related differences. They give us a downward trajectory .

Longitudinal - gives us a more stable pattern with a eventual rate of decline - not sharp- and what has been changing, but could be affected by attrition or practice effects

Question 177

What are the 3 theories of cognitive change?

Answer 177

The information degredation hypothesis - that perceptual signals like vision and hearing are weakened with age and results in impaired processing and requires a high cog load to process information

The common cause hypo- we all have a decline in these abilities but due to a common biological factor

Sensory deprivation hypo- lack a sensory info over time leads to gradual atrophy and loss of cog function

Question 178

what does cardiovascular health have to do with aging and AZ?

Answer 178

cardiovascular problems increase with age
- theres an increased risk of damage to the blood vessels which would result in a reduction in the supply of oxygen, glucose and blood
- affects BBB messing up waste removal

Question 179

Ageing in later years is typically associated with changes in brain structure and cog scores BUT doesn’t necessarily mean loss of cog functioning; some are old and quite coherent - how do they remain high functioning ?

Answer 179

• Neural changes may be offset by neural resources (reserves, maintenance, compensation) that support declining abilities and cog performance

Question 180

what are 4 things that can contribute to the changing of brain structure and function

Answer 180

neural resource enrichment
‘neural resource depletion,
biological aging
life experiences

Question 181

what is Compensation?

Answer 181

the act of using additional activation to minimise decline

More brain activity in the circuits that usually do the task or recruitment of additional regions

only deemed Compensatory if the persons level of performance is ELEVATED - someone could have more activity and no do well which is not the same
older adults with often employ both sides of brain while younger will only need one.
CRITICAL to consider how the task is being performed - different strategies.
limits on how much scaffolding can be done

Question 182

what is dementia?

Answer 182

an umbrella term for symptoms of brain disease that impairs cognition, memory, thinking and daily activities of living

Dementia is receached when a person is struggling to function normally

Question 183

what is 5 of the the clinical criteria for AZ ?

Answer 183

1. objective difficulty in two or more domains - memory/language, visuospatial/abstract thinking
2. gradual onset and progressive worsening of of memory and other cog functions
3. no disturbance of consciousness (delusions)
4. impaired activities of daily living
5. exclusion of other disorders

Question 184

In AZ which of the 3 domains would difficulty retreiving words and errors in naming tasks come under?

Answer 184

memory impairments (episodic, semantic)

Question 185

in AZ what would be examples of attentional and executive functioning impairments?

Answer 185

reduced working memory, difficulty task shifting, difficulty planning and organising trouble solving multistep problems

Question 186

problems with free drawing or copying and loss of spatial navigation fall under which domain in AZ?

Answer 186

visuospatial constructional impairments

Question 187

does the detection of amyloid mean you will get AZ?

Answer 187

no - only combo of AB and cognitive issues

Question 188

What are the contributing factors of AZ? both non-modifiable and modifiable

Answer 188

Aging is biggest factor
genetics - APOE strongest risk indicator but not confirming 50 % chance of inheriting

modifiable-
low education
smoking / heavy alcohol use
physical inactivity/obesity/diabetes
depression
hypertension
TBI

Question 189

AB lowering treatments can help to breakdown AB but what are the negitatives?

Answer 189

cost v risk is not very good
slows rate of decline but effects are modest and many ppl arent eligible

Question 190

What is cognitive reserve? and what contributes to it?

Answer 190

Cognitive reserve allows maintenance of “adequate functioning” LONGER in the face of pathology (keeps people functioning for longer)

individual differences in cog ability
compensation (recruitment/neurogenesis)
individual differences in neural activity and networks

cognitive reserve may mediate between AD pathology and its clinical expression - not slowing it down but our brains can work around it

Question 191

What is Parkinsons

Answer 191

neurogenetive disorder, specific type of motor disorder, disturbances of affective function, cognition and autonomic function

Question 192

What are the Parkinsons’ symptoms 4x

Answer 192

1. resting tremor - pill rolling
2. muscle rigidity
3. bradykinesia - slowness of movement difficulty initiating and sustaining voluntary movement
   4 postural instability

Motor signs
stooped posture, shuffling gait, absence of arm movements
reduced voice volume and inflection
small handwriting

non-motor
loss of smell
sleep disorders
dysphagia
loss of libido
sweating

Question 193

IN pARKINSONS what are and both motor and non-motor signs? and mood symptoms

Answer 193

Motor signs
stooped posture, shuffling gait, absence of arm movements
reduced voice volume and inflection
small handwriting

non-motor
loss of smell
sleep disorders
dysphagia
loss of libido
sweating

affective//mood
depression - OFTEN PRECES ONSET OF MOTOR SYMPTOMS
anxiety
psychotic associated with older patients and high levels of dopa meds - hallucinations
impulse control disorders (binge shopping/eating), gambling

Question 194

what is the neural basis of Parkinson?

Answer 194

1. death of dopaminergic cells of
   substantia nigra
2. presence of Lewy bodies in
   surviving SN cells (initially)–
   Lewy bodies: inclusions
   composed of neurofilaments
   and
   “alpha-synuclein aggregates”
   and ubiquitin–the misfolded protein!

Question 195

How does of Dopamine reduction cause symptoms

Answer 195

DA takes the breaks off the thalamus, leading to problems with inhibition and excitation in the motor centers
substaintia niagra compactus disrupts the dopamine going into the rest of the circuit.

Question 196

in Parkinsons theyres no symptoms until ….

Answer 196

60-80% of dopamine neurons have died

Question 197

What is the treatment for Parkinsons and how does it work?

Answer 197

Levo-dopa

cant just put DA back in because it cant pass the BBB. LEVO-DOPA which is a pre-cursor to DA can pass BBB and helps remaining neurons to produce DA
— But - relies on the remaining neurons which will soon run out so it loses its efficacy eventually, side effects can be problematic - high levels of DA can cause psychosis, excessive movement

Question 198

What is phase precession

Answer 198

Phase precession is a neurophysiological process in which the time of firing of action potentials by individual neurons occurs progressively earlier in relation to the phase of the local field potential oscillation with each successive cycle.
Wikipedia

Question 199

What is phase precession

Answer 199

Phase precession is a neurophysiological process in which the time of firing of action potentials by individual neurons occurs progressively earlier in relation to the phase of the local field potential oscillation with each successive cycle.
Wikipedia