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PSYC 105 Final Flashcards

1
Q

What is cognitive psychology

A

Study of the mind, specifically mental processes

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2
Q

Monism

A

The mind and the body are the same entity. Some believe only the mind exists and some only the body

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3
Q

Dualism

A

Mind and body are separate entities

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4
Q

Introspection

A

Earliest popular way to study the mind; looking within and recording one’s own mental processes and experiences; still can’t study unconscious thought

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5
Q

Behaviorism

A

Studying observable behaviors and stimuli, how does behavior change in response to stimuli; But it makes the brain look like a “black box” with no mental processes

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6
Q

Transcendental method

A

Inference of behavior is the best explanation for what is happening in the mind

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7
Q

The scientific method

A

The systematic and iterative process of hypothesizing, predicting, and observing phenomenon in order to generate knowledge

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8
Q

Constructs

A

Ideas we care about that can’t be observed directly. eg: happiness (broad idea)

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9
Q

Variables

A

Things we measure/manipulate that indirectly reflects constructs

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10
Q

Independent variable

A

The variable that researchers manipulate or assign to the participants, the hypothesized cause of the effects on the dependent variable

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11
Q

Dependent variable

A

The variable that researchers measure, the outcome of interest

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12
Q

Behavioral data

A

Measuring performance, eg: accuracy, response time

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13
Q

Biological data

A

Neuroimaging, neurological damage. Understanding what biological structures are necessary for performing a task

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14
Q

Comparing different populations

A

Do different groups of people behave in the same way?

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15
Q

3 functions of the brain

A

Creating a sensory reality; integrating information (making decisions); producing a motor output (responding to environment)

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16
Q

Frontal lobe

A

Motor, executive function (goal directed behavior)

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17
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Somatosensory, spatial information

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18
Q

Temporal lobe

A

auditory processing, emotions, language

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19
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Visual processing

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20
Q

Thalamus

A

Relay station for sensory information

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21
Q

Hypothalmus

A

Controls motivated behaviors like eating, drinking, and sexual activity

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22
Q

Amygdala

A

Emotional processing

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23
Q

Hippocampus

A

Learning and memory

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24
Q

Projection

A

Certain cortical areas map onto certain parts of the body; size correlates to precision and acuity

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25
Q

Neuroplasticity

A

The brain’s ability to change its structure, functions, or connections; Neuroplasticity enable cortical remapping (adjacent body part can take over)

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26
Q

Apraxia

A

Unable to move certain body parts

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27
Q

Agnosia

A

Inability to identify objects

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28
Q

Unilateral neglect syndrome

A

Can’t see/ignoring half the visual world

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29
Q

Aphasia

A

Inability to speak/communicate, language issue

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30
Q

Contralateral organization

A

Many neural pathways are crossed over; sensations from the right side of the body correlate to the left hemisphere and sensations from the left correlate tot he right hemisphere

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31
Q

Lateralization

A

The concept that each hemisphere is associated with specialized functions

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32
Q

Left hemisphere

A

Language and logical reasoning

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33
Q

Right hemisphere

A

Spatial tasks

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34
Q

Corpus callosum

A

Helps with communication between hemispheres; when severed leads to split brain patients

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35
Q

Sensation

A

The stimulation of sensory receptor cells, which is converted to neural impulses; the physiological basis of perception

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36
Q

Perception

A

The process by which the brain selects, organizes and interprets the sensations

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37
Q

Photoreceptors: Rods

A

Sensitive to low levels of light, lower acuity, color-blind

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38
Q

Photoreceptors: Cones

A

Primarily in the FOVEA, Cannot function in low light, higher acuity, color-sensitive

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39
Q

Blind spot

A

Area of the retina where the optic nerve is; Both eyes fill in for the other, brain also fills in information

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40
Q

Why do dim stars in the night sky fade when you look at them?

A

Because there are no rods in the fovea; it’s dim and we are highly focused on the star so we have trouble seeing it

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41
Q

Receptive field

A

The size and shape of the area in the visual field to which the ganglion cell responds to. The more similar to a ‘preferred’ stimulus the more often the cell fires

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42
Q

Lateral inhibition

A

Stimulated cells inhibit the activity of neighboring cells; increases acuity by enhancing contrasts; helps us see edges better

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43
Q

Bipolar cells

A

Enhance the contrast ratio for edge detection (lateral inhibition) and send signal to the ganglion cells

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44
Q

Akinetopsia

A

Inability to perceive motion

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45
Q

Parallel processing

A

Specialized regions are activated simultaneously; different areas have different purposes and work parallel to each other to help us perceive things

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46
Q

What pathway

A

Pathway connecting the occipital lobe and inferotemporal cortex (temporal lobe); Aids in identification of visual objects

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47
Q

Where pathway

A

Pathway connecting the occipital lobe and posterior parietal cortex (parietal lobe); Aids in perception of an object’s location

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48
Q

Associative agnosia

A

Can perceive entire object and copy but cannot name it; damage to what pathway; difficulty linking perceived object to stored knowledge

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49
Q

Apperceptive agnosia

A

Cannot copy from model but can draw from memory; damage to where pathway; Difficulty integrating features into a meaningful whole

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50
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

Processing sensory information, assembling, and integrating it; data-driven

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51
Q

Top-down processing

A

Using prior knowledge (expectations) to interpret sensory info; concept-driven

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52
Q

Gestalt psychologists on perception

A

The perceptual whole is often different than the sum of its parts; similarity, proximity, good continuation, closure, simplicity

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53
Q

Binocular disparity

A

The image of the same object falls on different regions of the retina for left vs. right eye, the disparity gets encoded as depth; greater the disparity, the closer the object

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54
Q

Convergence

A

The inward turning of eyes to focus on near objects

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55
Q

Perceptual constancy

A

Tendency to perceive constant object properties even though sensory info changes when viewing circumstances change

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56
Q

Visual illusions (brightness and color)

A

Our interpretation is affected by experience with light and shadow

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57
Q

Takeaway from illusions

A

Demonstrate how good we are at interpreting ambiguous sensory input, NOT how bad we are at perceiving our surroundings; top-down processing!!!

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58
Q

Feature nets

A

Each detector has an activation level, and it produces signal when the response threshold is met

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59
Q

Priming

A

A detector may take less stimulation to produce a signal due to frequency and recency

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60
Q

Recognition errors

A

Our input is often ambiguous and partial; more primed units are likely to fire

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61
Q

The Mcclelland and Rumelhart model

A

Information flows bottom-up, top-down, and within the same level; there are excitatory and inhibitory connections

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62
Q

Recognition by components

A

Feature net for 3D objects; Geons (parts of object) form objects like how letters form words; viewpoint independent- understanding structure from its part

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63
Q

Viewpoint-dependent recogntion

A

Like a feature net for views stored in memory from different angles; eg- motorcycle

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64
Q

Face inversion effect

A

Less sensitive to features changes when upside down

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65
Q

Composite face effect

A

Facial features are harder to detect in context than in isolation; faces are always processed as whole configurations

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66
Q

Multimodal perception

A

Integrating sensory signals from different modalities to form a unified reality

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67
Q

McGurk effect

A

Conflicting visual and auditory signals mutually influence our perception

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68
Q

Cross-modal perception

A

The influence between the different sensory modalities; nuanced differences between sounds and events may be learned through experience

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69
Q

Attention

A

Mechanisms that select select relevant perceptual input and reject irrelevant input

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70
Q

Selective attention

A

Tasks that require attending to one stimulus and ignore another; informs us about the process of selection and what happens to the unattended stimuli

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71
Q

Divided attention

A

Tasks that require attending to all stimuli; informs us about processing limits and attentional capacity

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72
Q

Inattentional blindness

A

The failure to see a prominent stimulus, even if one is staring right at it; Attention is focused elsewhere

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73
Q

Change blindness

A

The inability to detect change in a scene, despite looking at it directly; either visual or gradual

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74
Q

Dichotic listening task

A

Different audio inputs presented in each ear of headphones; Made to pay attention to the attended channel

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75
Q

Unattended channel in the dichotic listening task

A

Unlikely to remember semantic information, but may still be aware of physical attributes or potentially meaningful information (eg: changes in the audio)

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76
Q

Cocktail party effect

A

The ability to focus on one conversation and tune out other conversations in the background; BUT exception when you hear personally relevant information

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77
Q

Early selection model

A

Selection is based on physical characteristics; Failure to perceive; unattended stimuli receive less processing than unattended stimuli

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78
Q

Late selection model

A

Selection based on semantic content; failure to remember; some processing happened but irrelevant stimuli still made it to brain

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79
Q

Attenuation model

A

Attended information is enhanced, unattended is reduced, but both ARE STILL PROCESSED

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80
Q

Priming

A

A lower response threshold (the lowest point at which a particular stimulus will cause a response) leads to easier/faster recognition; especially frequency or recency of stimuli

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81
Q

Expectation based priming

A

What we use to selectively attend, effortful; Top-down activation of detectors you are expecting to use

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82
Q

Stimulus-driven priming

A

Requires no effort/cognitive resources; Bottom-up activation of detectors based on features in the stimulus

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83
Q

Posner task

A

faster to respond to expected arrow cue; expectation based priming (top-down) can be helpful but wrong orientation/misguiding has a cost

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84
Q

Attention as a spotlight

A

The movement of the ‘beam’ refers to the movement of attention not the movement of eyes; context affects voluntary eye movements

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85
Q

Endogenous attention

A

Consciously choose what we want to attend; voluntary/top-down attention

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86
Q

Exogenous attention

A

An external stimulus seizes your attention; involuntary/bottom-up attention

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87
Q

Is attention to object-based or location-based?

A

Face value = location-based; ACTUALLY BOTH

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88
Q

Binding problem

A

Parallel processing happens simultaneously, ATTENTION is the glue that combines the dorsal and ventral stream to perceive a single unified object

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89
Q

Feature search

A

Automatic and parallel; things “pop out”

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90
Q

Conjunction search

A

Effortful and serial; usually on by one, longer time to check more features

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91
Q

Feature integration theory

A

pre-attentive stage and focused attention stage

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92
Q

Pre-attentive stage

A

Features separated, parallel and automatic processing, separate features pop out

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93
Q

Focused attention stage

A

Features combined, serial processing (attention) to bind features together

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94
Q

cognitive budget

A

Divided attention will fail if the combination of tasks exceeds our limited mental resources

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95
Q

Generality of resources

A

A single pool of resources needs to be divided among multiple concurrent tasks

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96
Q

Domain-specificity of resources

A

Different modalities have different pools of resources, similar tasks compete for the same resources

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97
Q

Response selector resources

A

Required for selecting and initiating responses

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98
Q

Executive control resources

A

Setting goals and priorities, avoid conflict among competing habits/responses (eg: distraction)

99
Q

Frontal lobe lesions

A

Deficits in executive control, make preservation errors (same response repeatedly when task requires change in response)

100
Q

Goal neglect

A

Disorganized thinking/performance, doing things randomly without planning (rey osterrieth figure)

101
Q

Task similarity

A

It is easier to do dissimilar tasks than similar tasks

102
Q

Automaticity

A

Tasks that are well-practiced and require little to no executive control

103
Q

Strop interference task

A

Say only the color of the word, not the written color

104
Q

The modal model of memory

A

Acquisition, storage, and retrieval

105
Q

Sensory memory

A

A brief store of raw sensory information; modality specific- iconic (visual) memory is the shortest

106
Q

Working memory (originally STM)

A

Active manipulation of information entering the brain

107
Q

Serial position effects

A

Recall likelihood is influences by the item’s serial position (order); WM-recency effect, LTM- Primacy effect

108
Q

Working memory capacity

A

~ 4 chunks

109
Q

Chunking

A

Grouping seemingly random items into meaningful units

110
Q

Operation span

A

Measures the capacity when WM is “working, highlights the active nature of WM

111
Q

WM components: Central executive

A

Direct attention and resources

112
Q

WM components: Episodic buffer

A

Organize information into a chronological sequence, narrative/event

113
Q

WM components: Visuospatial sketchpad

A

Planning visual and spatial tasks

114
Q

WM components: Phonological loop

A

Auditory storage and articulatory processing (“inner voice”)

115
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A

Repeating information in a rote mechanical way

116
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

Thinking about meaning, relating items to each other or existing knowledge; more connections, easier to retrieve

117
Q

Intentional learning

A

Deliberate, with expectation to be tested

118
Q

Incidental learning

A

Learning in the absence of an intention to learn

119
Q

Explicit memory

A

Conscious, can be tested with “direct tests”

120
Q

Implicit Memory

A

Can be tested by indirect tests

121
Q

Mnemonics

A

Associating a well-known structure or sequence with a less well-known one; often rely on mental imagery, may not lead to better understanding and learning

122
Q

Retrieval paths

A

Connections between new memory with existing memory; only useful if you can access them

123
Q

Spreading activation

A

activation spreads to nearby nodes, decreasing in strength with distance from the original node; stronger when association is closer

124
Q

Why do retrieval cues help us remember?

A

Having multiple cues = receiving activation from multiple sources -> increases the chance that a node will reach threshold

125
Q

Context reinstatement

A

Mentally recreating the context

126
Q

Encoding specificity principle

A

Materials are better recognized as familiar later if they appear in, or are cued by a similar context

127
Q

Testing effect

A

Testing yourself is better for long-term memory retention; re study is good on the short-term

128
Q

Memory is reconstructive

A

We often remember the gist of our experiences, use the gist to reactivate nodes and connections from original memory

129
Q

Intrusion errors

A

Falsely recalling something that was not present in encoding; prior knowledge or other connection cause false recollections

130
Q

Schematic knowledgable

A

Remember what is typical or frequent of a situation, built up on prior experiences

131
Q

Misinformation effect

A

Our memory is susceptible to “contamination” by external sources

132
Q

Confidence and accuracy

A

Confidence can be altered without changing the memory itself

133
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

A special kind of episodic memory that we recall in great, vivid details; the involvement of amygdala in encoding and retrieval; vividness is often mistaken accuracy

134
Q

Forgetting: Decay theory

A

memories fade or erode over time

135
Q

Forgetting: Interference theory

A

The recall of some info affects the recall of other info

136
Q

Proactive inference

A

Old affects new

137
Q

Retroactive interference

A

New affects old

138
Q

Forgetting: Retrieval failure

A

Memory is intact, but temporarily unable to access

139
Q

Clive Wearing

A

Both retrograde and anterograde amnesia

140
Q

Damage to amygdala

A

Little implicit memory (fear response), intact explicit memory

141
Q

Damage to hippocampus

A

Little explicit memory, normal fear response

142
Q

Concept

A

Mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions

143
Q

Categorization

A

The process by which things (like concepts) are placed into groups called categories

144
Q

Definitional approach

A

Determine category membership based on whether the object meets the definition of a category; too rigid, not all members of everyday categories have the same defining features

145
Q

Probability approach

A

The more characteristic features an object has the more likely we are to believe it likely part of the category

146
Q

Family resemblance

A

Category members may not be defined, but rather resemble one another

147
Q

Prototype approach to categorization

A

An abstract representation of the “typical” member of a category; an average of category members encountered in the past; fuzzy boundaries

148
Q

High prototypicality

A

Category member closely resembles category type; the “typical member”

149
Q

Low prototypicality

A

Category member does not closely resemble category prototype

150
Q

Typicality effect

A

Prototypical objects are processed preferentially; highly prototypical objects are judged as the category faster

151
Q

Naming effect

A

Prototypical objects are named first

152
Q

Exemplar approach to categorization

A

Concept is represented my multiple exemplars (rather than a single prototype); representation is not abstract like prototype view; easily takes into account atypical cases

153
Q

Global level

A

General category (eg: furniture)

154
Q

Basic level

A

Somewhat specific category (eg: table, chair); the most special hierarchical category, quicker to identify and learned first

155
Q

Specific/subordinate level

A

Very specific category (eg: kitchen table, dining table)

156
Q

Inductive inference

A

The process of making observations and applying those observations by generalization to a different problem. Therefore one infers from a special case to the general principle

157
Q

Bayesian inference: Posterior

A

How probable is the hypothesis given the evidence?; overall 1 is a better hypothesis than 2 or 3

158
Q

Bayesian inference: likelihood

A

How probable is the evidence given that our hypothesis is true?; 1 and 2 are more likely to explain the data than 3

159
Q

Bayesian inference: prior

A

How probable was our hypothesis before observing the evidence?; 1 and 3 are more common than 2

160
Q

Core knowledge

A

The initial seeds of knowledge get learning started; early concepts of how the world works

161
Q

Theory of mind

A

Babies are tying ideas of the world together, internally building their own theories

162
Q

Phonemes

A

Smallest unit of sound

163
Q

Phonology

A

How sounds connect to make words

164
Q

Morphemes

A

Smallest unit of meaning

165
Q

Morphology

A

How morphemes are combined to make up words

166
Q

Lexicon

A

Representations of words, “mental dictionary” of all the info we know about a word

167
Q

Syntax

A

Rules governing how words are combine to form sentences

168
Q

Semantics

A

Literal meaning of words/sentences)

169
Q

Pragmatics

A

Meaning in context

170
Q

Which of the following is the best description of the sentence: “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously”?

A

It is semantically non-sensical in english

171
Q

Arbitrariness

A

Abstract symbols determined by convention, no inherent relations between sounds and meanings

172
Q

Displacement

A

Can talk about things and ideas not in the “here and now”

173
Q

Duality of patterning

A

Combinations of otherwise meaningless units are meaningful; separate = no sense, together = meaningful

174
Q

Productivity

A

Speakers can create novel utterances they have never heard before, can create an infinite set of meanings with a finite set of units

175
Q

Reflexiveness

A

Can use the language to talk about language itself

176
Q

Recursion

A

Embedding structures within structures; hierarchical and potentially infinite

177
Q

Language acquisition device

A

Internal (born with), general set of rules and constraints that are shared by all human languages (nativism)

178
Q

Poverty of stimulus

A

Children can produce novel structures and learn based on limited and imperfect input

179
Q

Linguistic determinism (stronger version)

A

Language limits/determines thoughts; no word for idea/concept = hard to solidify in brain

180
Q

Linguistic relatively (milder version)

A

Language affects perception (but doesn’t determine it)

181
Q

Egocentric frame of reference

A

In relation to one’s own position; common in english

182
Q

Allocentric frame of reference

A

Independent of viewer’s pov, usually in relation to landmarks (uphill vs downhill, to the north)

183
Q

Codability

A

Higher agreeability on the labels, usually shorter in length, easier for speakers to come up with; better recognition memory for more codable color

184
Q

Categorical perception

A

The perception of distinct categories when thee is a gradual change in a continuum; Distinguishing within category items is harder and takes longer than between-category items

185
Q

Word spurt

A

Around 18 months old children rapidly learn words at an exponential rate

186
Q

How do children learn words

A

Look and name

187
Q

Referential ambiguity

A

When learning new words with look and name is it talking about the object itself or its attributes?

188
Q

Solutions to Referential ambiguity: Whole object

A

The label refers to the object rather than its parts (seen earlier in life)

189
Q

Solutions to Referential ambiguity: mutual exclusivity

A

New word is probably a label for an object that does not already have a label

190
Q

Solutions to Referential ambiguity: Taxonomic restraint

A

New word refers to a basic category rather than a theme

191
Q

Solutions to Referential ambiguity: syntactic bootstrapping

A

Using the syntactic structure (grammar) to get the meaning; eg- this is a bif (noun/object)

192
Q

Time course for learning grammar

A

U-shaped development; specific instances of grammar to overregularization of rules (using rules when they don’t apply to word like goed, wented), then gradually learning the exceptions/rules and improving

193
Q

Critical period hypothesis

A

The process of lateralization (language development in left brain) develops rapids between age 2 and 5, then slows down, being complete by puberty; the period of maturation

194
Q

Speech mitigation

A

Slicing of continuous speech sounds into appropriate segments

195
Q

Coarticulation (related to speech mitigation)

A

A sound may be affected by features of adjacent sounds

196
Q

Voice onset time (VOT)

A

The timepoint at which the vocal cord starts to vibrate; < 30 ms makes a p sound and < 30 ms makes a b sound; harder to discriminate sounds as we get close to VOT

197
Q

Phoneme restoration effect

A

The effect of context on speech process; use semantic and syntactic information to “fill in the gaps”; more noticeable if sound is replaced with silence

198
Q

Lexical ambiguity

A

Eg: “children’s stool good for use in garden” - what type of stool?

199
Q

Selective access model

A

One meaning activated at a time; check serially in order of meaning frequencies until one fits

200
Q

Multiple access model

A

All meanings activated simultaneously; all activated and make decision when context permits

201
Q

Parsing

A

Computing the syntactic structure of a sentence; knowing the syntactic category, how units combine to make bigger units. Ambiguity exists on a syntactic level as well

202
Q

Garden path sentence

A

Sentence leads you to one interpretation which turns out to be wrong; eg- while sarah was dressing he baby played on the floor

203
Q

Late closure strategy

A

Attach incoming words to current phrase, rather than creating a new one

204
Q

Grammatically effect

A

Errors often within the same grammatical class (nouns for nouns and verbs for verbs); eg- I’m stuttering psycholinguistics. vs. I’m studying psycholinguistics

205
Q

Consonant-vowel rule

A

Errors occur within the same phonological class (consonants for consonants; vowels for vowels); eg- rule of rum vs. rule of thumb

206
Q

Lexical bias effect

A

Errors that make up real words are more likely than non-word errors; eg- Deep cot -> Keep dot more likely than Deed Cop -> Keed Dop

207
Q

tip-of-the-tongue

A

Failure to retrieve a word, often coupled with partial recall and the feeling that successful retrieval is imminent -> meaning and grammar can be accessed separately from pronunciation

208
Q

Structural priming

A

Exposure to one structure increases the likelihood of producing that structure again, even when the semantic content has changed -> sentence frames can be planned independently of words (eg- active vs passive voice)

209
Q

Broca’s aphasia

A

Halting speech, disordered syntax, comprehension intact

210
Q

Wernicke’s aphasia

A

Fluent speech, adequate syntax, comprehension not intact

211
Q

Self-monitoring

A

Speech errors are generally rare; Although our production system may be very efficient and accurate, there must be some monitoring mechanism that helps us detect and prevent errors before they are uttered; taboo errors (with swear/inappropriate words) are less common

212
Q

Judgement

A

The mental process through which people draw conclusions from the evidence they encounter

213
Q

Prescriptive theory of decision making

A

How to help people make better decisions

213
Q

Descriptive theory of decision making

A

How people actually make decisions; e.g., the use of heuristics (mental shortcuts)

213
Q

Normative theory of decision making

A

The supposedly optimal decision based on a set of principles

214
Q

Dual process model: system 1

A

Intuitive, automatic, immediate, rely on heuristics

215
Q

Dual process model: system 2

A

Analytical, controlled, cognitively demanding, more likely to be correct

216
Q

Heuristics

A

Mental shortcuts, constructed based on prior experience to save time and energy; BUT they are not guaranteed to be correct; rely on attribute substitution

217
Q

attribute substitution

A

using one attribute (e.g., fluency or similarity) to make a judgment about another attribute (e.g., frequency or probability)

218
Q

Availability heuristic

A

Making a judgment based on how easily something can be recalled, the easier it is for something to comes to mind, the more frequent/likely/significant it is assumed to be; eg- fluency effects

219
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

the assumption that resemblance to the prototype reflects probability

220
Q

Assumption of homogeneity

A

an expectation that each individual is representative of the category overall

221
Q

Base rate

A

Actual rate of how common something is

222
Q

Base rate neglect

A

The tendency to ignore the “prior probability” of
an event

223
Q

Conjunction fallacy

A

An inference that the set of two or more conclusions is more likely than any single member of that set

224
Q

Gambler’s fallacy

A

failure to consider the independence of probabilistic events; chance viewed as a “self-correcting” process

225
Q

Anchoring and adjustment

A

the tendency to anchor estimate on first salient number then adjust up or down from there

226
Q

Utility

A

The importance/value of each outcome

227
Q

Probability

A

How likely each outcome is

228
Q

Utility theory

A

Assumes that humans are rational actions who choose the option that provides the most utility; Utility can be thought of as the “expected value” of a choice; Expected value = probability of an outcome x value of the outcome

229
Q

Prospect theory

A

People hate losing more than they like winning; The marginal impact of a change in value diminishes with the distance from a relevant reference point

230
Q

framing effects

A

People tend to interpret a choice based on the given frame of reference

231
Q

Frequencies vs probabilities

A

People are more likely to accept the test in the probability condition (eg- reduce chance of death by 1/3 over reduce 3 in 1000)

232
Q

Problem solving

A

The process by which one determines the steps needed to reach a goal

233
Q

Components of a problem: Initial State

A

Resources you currently have

234
Q

Components of a problem: Goal state

A

End product

235
Q

Components of a problem: Operates

A

A set of operations or actions taken to reach the goal state

236
Q

Components of a problem: Constraints

A

Rules that cannot be violated

237
Q

Problem space

A

The total set of possible moves within the constraints of the problem

238
Q

Navigating the problem space: Algorithm

A

A procedure that inspects every possible move in the space by applying operations over and over again until goal state is reached; slow but guarantees a solution

239
Q

Problem solving heuristics: Hill-climbing strategy

A

At each step in solving a problem, choose the option that moves you in the
direction of your goal; But does not work for problems that require you to move away from the goal for some steps.

240
Q

Problem solving heuristics: Means-end analysis

A

Divide the problem into smaller problems then solve in any order

241
Q

Problem solving heuristics: Mean-end analysis

A

Goal divided into many sub-goals

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