PSYC 100 Midtrem 1 study Flashcards
Psychological disorder
Psychological dysfunction associated with distress or impairment in functioning that is not typically or culturally expected response
Phobia
A psychological disorder characterized by marked and persistent fear of an object or situation
Abnormal behavior
Actions that are unexpected and often evaluated negatively because they differ from typical or usual behavior
Psychopathology
Scientific study of psychological disorders
Scientist-practitioners
A mental health professional expected to apply scientific methods to their work. Must know the latest research in diagnosis and treatment, must evaluate their methods for effectiveness, and may generate research to discover information about disorders and their treatment
Presenting problem
Original complaint reported by the client to the therapist. The actual treated problem may be a modification derived from the presenting problem
Clinical description
Details of the combination of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings of an individual that make up a particular disorder
Prevalence
The number of people displaying a disorder in the total population at any given time
Incidence
Number of new cases of a disorder appearing during a specific period
course
pattern of development and change of a disorder over time
prognosis
Predicted development of a disorder over time
Etiology
Cause or source of a disorder
Exorcism
Religious ritual that attributes disordered behavior to possession by demons and seeks to treat the individual by driving the demons from the body
Psychosocial treatment
Treatment practices that focuses on social and cultural factors, as well as psychological influences. These approaches include cognitive, behavioral, and interpersonal methods
Moral therapy
Psychosocial approach in the 19th century that involved treating patients as normally as possible in normal environments
Mental hygiene movement
Mid 19th century effort to improve care of the mentally disordered by informing the public of their mistreatment
Psychoanalysis
Assessment and therapy pioneered by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes exploration of, and insight into, unconscious processes and conflicts
Behaviorism
Explanation of human behavior, including dysfunction, based on principles of learning and adaptation derived from experimental psychology
unconscious
Part of the psychic makeup that is outside the awareness of the person
Catharsis
Rapid or sudden release of emotional tension thought to be an important factor in psychoanalytic therapy
Psychoanalytic model
Complex and comprehensive theory originally advanced by Freud that seeks to account for the development and structure of personality, as well as the origin of abnormal behavior, based primarily on inferred inner entities and forces
Id
In psychoanalysis, the unconscious psychic entity present at birth representing basic drives
Ego
The psychic identity responsible for finding realistic and practical ways to satisfy id drives
Superego
The psychic entity representing the internalized moral standards of parents and society
Intrapsychic conflicts
In psychoanalytic theory, a struggle among the id, ego, and superego
Defense mechanisms
Common pattern of behavior, often an adaptive coping style when it occurs in moderation, observed in response to a particular situation. Psychoanalytic theory suggests that defense mechanisms are unconscious processes originating in the ego
Psychosexual stages of development
Psychoanalytic concept of the sequence of phases a person passes through during development. Each stage is named for the location on the body where id gratification is maximal at the time
Castration anxiety
In psychoanalysis, the fear in young boys that they will be mutilated genitally because of their lust for their mothers
Neurosis
Obsolete psychodynamic term for a psychological disorder thought to result from an unconscious conflict and the anxiety it causes
Ego psychology
Psychoanalytic theory that emphasizes the role of the ego in development and attributes psychological disorders to failure of the ego to manage impulses and internal conflicts. Also known as self psychology
Object relations
Modern development in psychodynamic theory involving the study of how children incorporate the memories and values of people who are close and important to them
Collective unconscious
Accumulated wisdom of a culture collected of a culture collected and remembered across generations, a psychodynamic concept introduced by Carl Jung
Free association
Psychoanalytic therapy technique intended to explore threatening material repressed into the unconscious. The patient is instructed to say whatever comes to mind without censoring
Dream analysis
Psychoanalytic therapy method in which dream content is examined as symbolic of id impulses and intrapsychic conflicts
Psychoanalyst
Therapist who practices psychoanalysis after earning an MD or PhD degree and receiving additional training
Transference
Psychoanalytic concept suggesting that clients may seek to relate to the therapist as they do to important authority figures (parents)
Psychodynamic psychotherapy
Contemporary version of psychoanalysis that still emphasizes unconscious processes and conflicts but is briefer and more focused on specific problems
Self-actualization
Process emphasized in humanistic psychology in which people strive to achieve their highest potential against difficult life experiences
Person-centered therapy
Therapy method in which client, rather than the counselor, primarily directs the course of discussion, seeking self-discovery and self responsibility
Unconditional positive regard
Acceptance by the counselor of the client’s feelings and actions without judgement or condemnation
Behavioral model
Explanation of human behavior, including dysfunction, based on principles of learning and adaptation derived from experimental psychology
Classical conditioning
Fundamental learning process first described by Ivan Pavlov. An event that automatically elicits a response is paired with another stimulus event that does not (a neutral stimulus). After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that by itself can elicit the desired response
Extinction
Learning process in which a response maintained by reinforcement in operant conditioning or pairing in classical conditioning decreases when that reinforcement or pairing is removed; also the procedure of removing that reinforcement or pairing
Introspection
early, nonscientific approach to the study of psychology involving systematic attempts to report thoughts and feeling that specific stimuli evoked
Systematic desensitization
Behavioral therapy technique to diminish excessive fears, involving gradual exposure to the feared stimulus paired with a positive coping experience, usually relaxation
Behavior therapy
Array of therapeutic methods based on the principles of behavioral and cognitive science, as well as principles of learning as applied to clinical problems. It considers specific behaviors rather than inferred conflicts as legitimate targets for change
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, consequences for behavior that strengthen it or increase its frequency. Positive reinforcement involves the contingent delivery of a desired consequence. Negative reinforcement is the contingent escape from an aversive consequence. Unwanted behaviors may result from reinforcement of those behaviors or the failure to reinforce desired behaviors
Shaping
In operant conditioning, the development of a new response by reinforcing successively more similar versions of that response. Both desirable and undesirable behaviors may be learned this way
Somatic symptom disorders
Disorder involving extreme and long-lasting focus on multiple physical symptoms for which no medical cause is evident
Dissociative disorder
Disorder in which individuals feel detached from themselves or their surroundings and feel reality, experience, and identity may disintegrate
somatic symptom disorders
Disorder involving extreme and long-lasting focus on multiple physical symptoms for which no medical cause is evident
illness anxiety disorder
Somatic symptom disorder involving extreme anxiety over belief in having a disease process without any evident physical cause
Psychological factors affecting medical conditions
Psychological factors that seem to influence the course of medical disorders
Conversion disorder
Physical malfunctioning, such as blindness or paralysis, suggesting neurological impairment but with no organic pathology to account for it
Malingering
Deliberate faking of a physical or psychological disorder motivated by gain
Factitious disorder
Non-existent physical or psychological disorder, deliberately faked for no apparat gain except, possibly, sympathy and attention
Derealization
Situation in which the individual loses a sense of the reality of the external world
depersonalization-derealization disorder
Dissociative disorder in which feelings of depersonalization are so severe they dominate the client’s life and prevent normal functioning
Dissociative amnesia
Dissociative disorder featuring the inability to recall personal information; usually of a stressful or traumatic nature
Generalized amnesia
Loss of memory of all personal information, including identity
Localized or selective amnesia
Memory loss limited to specific times and events, particularly traumatic events
Dissociative Fugue
Dissociative disorder featuring sudden, unexpected travel away from home, along with an inability to recall the past, sometimes with assumption of a new identity
Dissociative trance
altered state of consciousness in which people firmly believe they are possessed by spirits; considered a disorder only where there is distress and dysfunction
Dissociative identity disorder (DID)
Disorder in which as many as 100 personalities or fragments of personalities coexist within one body and mind. Formerly known as multiple personality disorder
Alters
Shorthand term for alter ego, one of the different personalities or identities in DID
Multidimensional integrative approach
approach to the study of psychopathology that holds psychological disorders are always the products of multiple interacting causal factors
Genes
Long deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecule, the basic physical unit of heredity that appears as a location on a chromosome
Diathesis-stress model
Hypothesis that both an inherited tendency (vulnerability) and specific stressful conditions are required to produce a disorder
Vulnerability
Susceptibility or tendency to develop a disorder
Gene-environment correlation model
Hypothesis that people with genetic predisposition for a disorder may also have a genetic tendency to create environmental risk factors that promote the disorder
Epigenetics
The study of factors other than inherited DNA sequence, such as new learning or stress, that alter the phenotypic expression of genes
Neuroscience
Study of the nervous system and its role in behavior, thoughts, and emotions
Neuron
Individual nerve cell responsible for transmitting information
Action potentials
Short periods of electrical activity at the membrane of a neuron, responsible for the transmission of signals within the neuron
Terminal button
the end of an axon (of a neuron) where neurotransmitters are stored before release
Synaptic cleft
Space between nerve cells where chemical transmitters act to move impulses from one neuron to the next
Neurotransmitters
Chemical that crosses the synaptic cleft between nerve cells to transmit impulses from one neuron to the next. Relative excess or deficiency of neurotransmitters is involved in several psychological disorders
Excitatory
Causing excitation. Activating
Inhibitory
Causing inhibition. Suppressing
Brain circuits
Neurotransmitter current or neural pathway in the brain
Agonist
In neuroscience, a chemical substance that effectively increases the activity of a neurotransmitter by imitating its effects
Antagonist
A chemical substance that decreases or blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter
Inverse agonist
In neuroscience, a chemical substance that produces effects opposite those of a particular neurotransmitter
Reuptake
Action by which a neurotransmitter is quickly drawn back into the discharging neuron after being released into a synaptic cleft
Glutamate
Amino acid neurotransmitter that excites many different neurons, leading to action
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Neurotransmitter that reduces activity across the synaptic cleft and thus inhibits a range of behaviors and emotions, especially generalized with anxiety
Serotonin
Neurotransmitter involved in processing of information and coordination of movement, as well as inhibition and restraint. It also assists in the regulation of eating, sexual, and aggressive behaviors, all of which may be involved in different psychological disorders. Its interaction with dopamine is implicated in schizophrenia
Norepinephrine (or noradenaline)
Neurotransmitter active in the central and peripheral nervous systems, controlling heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, among other functions. Because of its role in the body’s alarm reaction, it may also contribute generally and indirectly to panic attacks and other disorders
Dopamine
Neurotransmitter whose generalized function is to activate other neurotransmitters and to aid in exploratory and pleasure-seeking behaviors. A relative excess of dopamine is implicated in schizophrenia, and its deficit is involved in Parkinson’s disease
Cognitive science
Field of study that examines how humans and other animals acquire, process, store, and retrieve information
Learned helplessness
Martin Seligman’s theory that people become anxious and depresses when they make an attribution that they have no control over the stress in their lives
Modeling (observational learning)
Learning through observation and imitation of the behavior of other individuals and consequences of that behavior
Prepared learning
ability adaptive for evolution, allowing certain associations to be learned more readily than others
Implicit memory
Condition of memory in which a person cannot recall past events despite acting in response to them
Flight or fight response
Biological reaction to alarming stressors that musters the body’s resources to resist or flee a threat
Emotion
Pattern of action elicited by an external event and a feeling state, accompanied by a characteristic physiological response
Mood
Enduring period of emotionality
affect
Conscious subjective aspect of an emotion that accompanies an action at a given time
circumplex model
A model describing different emotions as points in a 2 dimensional space of valence and arousal
Equifinality
Developmental psychology principle that a behavior or disorder may have several causes
Clinical assessment
Systematic evaluation and measurement of psychological, biological, and social factors in a person presenting with a possible psychological disorder
diagnosis
process of determining whether a presenting problem meets the established criteria for a specific psychological disorder
Reliability
Degree to which a measurement is consistent – for example, over time or among different raters
Validity
Degree to which a technique measures what it purports to measure
Standardization
Process of establishing specific norms and requirements for a measurement technique to ensure it is used consistently across measurement occasions. This includes instructions for administering the measure, evaluating its findings, and comparing these to data for large numbers of people
Mental status exam
Relatively coarse preliminary test of a client’s judgement, orientation to time and place, and emotional and mental state; typically conducted during an initial interview
Behavioral assessment
Measuring, observing, and systematically evaluating (rather than inferring) the client’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the actual problem situation or context
Self-monitoring
Action by which clients observe and record their own behaviors as either an assessment of a problem and its change or treatment procedure that makes them more aware of their responses
projective tests
Psychoanalytically based measure that presents ambiguous stimuli to clients on the assumption that their responses can reveal their unconscious conflicts. Such tests are inferential and lack high reliability and validity
Personality inventories
Self-report questionnaire that assesses personal traits by asking respondents to identify descriptions that apply to themselves
Intelligent quotient (IQ)
score on an intelligence test estimating a person’s deviation from average test performance
Neuropsychological test
assessment of brain and nervous system functioning by testing an individual’s performance on behavioral tasks
false positive
assessment error in which pathology is reported (ie, test results are positive) when none is actually present
false negative
assessment error in which no pathology is noted (ie, test results are negative) when one is actually present
neuroimaging
sophisticated computer-aided procedure that allows nonintrusive examination of nervous system structure and function
psychophysiological assessment
measurement of changes in the nervous system reflecting psychological or emotional events such as anxiety, stress, and sexual arousal
electroencephalogram (EEG)
Measure of electrical activity patters in the brain, taken through electrodes placed on the scalp
idiographic strategy
A close and detailed investigation of an individual emphasizing what makes that person unique
nomothetic strategy
identification and examination of large groups of people with the same disorder to note similarities and develop general laws
classification
assignment of objects or people to categories on the basis of shared characteristics
taxonomy
system of naming and classification in science
Nosology
classification and naming system for medical and psychological phenomenon
Nomenclature
In a naming system or nosology, the actual labels or names that are applied. In psychopathology, these include mood disorders and eating disorders
Classical categorical approach
Classification method f on the assumption of clear-cut differences among disorders, each with a different known cause
Dimensional approach
method of categorizing characteristics on a continuum rather than on a binary, either-or, or all-or-none basis
Prototypical approach
System of categorizing disorders using both essential, defining characteristics and a range of variation on other characteristics
Familial aggression
Extent to which a disorder would be found among a patient’s relatives
Comorbidity
Presence of two or more disorders in an individual at the same time
Labeling
Applying a name to a phenomenon or a pattern of behavior. The label may acquire negative connotations or be applied erroneously to the person rather than that person’s behaviors
hypothesis
Educated guess or statement to be tested by research
Research design
plan of experimentation used to test a hypothesis
dependent variable
In an experimental study, the phenomenon that is measured and expected to be influenced
Independent variable
Phenomenon manipulated by the experimenter in a study and expected to influence the dependent variable
Internal validity
Extent to which the results of a study can be attributed to the independent variable after confounding alternative explanations have been ruled out
External validity
Extent to which research findings generalize to people and settings not involved in the study
Testability
Ability of a hypothesis to be subjected to scientific scrutiny and to be accepted or rejected, necessary for a useful hypothesis
confound
Any factor occurring in a study that makes the results uninterpretable because its effects cannot be separated from those of the variables being studied
Confounding variable
Variable in a research study that was not part of the intended design and that may contribute to the changes in the DV
Control group
Group of individuals in a study who are similar to the experimental subjects in every way but are not exposed to the treatment received by the experimental group. Their presence allows for a comparison of the differential effects of the treatment
Randomization
Method for placing individuals into research groups that assures each an equal chance of being assigned to any group, thus eliminating any systematic differences across groups
Analogue models
Approach to research that employs subjects who are similar to clinical clients, allowing replication of a clinical problem under controlled conditions
Generalizability
Extent to which research results apply to a range of individuals not included in the study
Statistical significance
small probability of obtaining the observed research findings by chance
Clinical significance
degree to which research findings have useful and meaningful applications to real problems
effect size
a statistical process that eliminates how large a change in measure occurred. Often used before and after clinical treatment to determine its relative success
Patient uniformity myth
Tendency to consider all members of a category as more similar than they are, ignoring their individual differences
Case study method
Research procedure in which a single person or small group is studied in detail. The method does not allow conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships, and findings can be generalized only with great caution (contrast with single-case experimental design)
Correlation
Degree to which two variables are associated. In a positive correlation, the two variables increase or decrease together. In a negative correlation, one variable decreases as the other increases
Positive correlation
Association between two variables in which one increases as the other increases
negative correlation
Association between two variables in which one increases as the other decreases
Correlation coefficient
Computed statistic reflecting the strength and direction of any association between two variables. It can range from 21.00 through 0.00 (indicating no association) to 11.00, with the absolute value indicating the strength and the sign reflecting the direction
Directionality
Possibility that when two variables, A and B, are correlated variable A causes variable B or variable B causes variable A
Epidemiology
Psychopathology research method examining the prevalence, distribution, and the consequences of disorders in populations
Experiment
Research method that can establish causation by manipulating the variables in question and controlling for alternative explanations of any observed effects
Placebo effect
Behavior change resulting from the person’s expectation of change rather than from the experimental manipulation itself
Double-blind control
Procedure in outcome research that prevents bias by ensuring that neither the subjects nor the providers of the experimental treatment know who is receiving treatment and who is receiving a placebo
Comparative treatment research
Outcome research that contrasts two or more treatment methods to determine which is most effective
Single-case experimental design
Research tactic in which an independent variable is manipulated for a single individual, allowing cause-and-effect conclusions but with limited generalizability(contrast with case study method)
Repeated measurement
when responses are measured on more than two occasions (not just before and after intervention) to assess trends
variability
degree of change in a phenomenon over time
trend
direction of change of a behavior
level
degree of behavior change with different interventions
Withdrawal design
Removing a treatment to note whether it has been effective. In single-case experimental designs, a behavior is measured (baseline), an independent variable is introduced (intervention), and then the intervention is withdrawn. Because the behavior continues to be measured throughout (repeated measurement), any effects of the intervention can be noted
baseline
measured rate of a behavior before introduction of an intervention that allows comparison and assessment of the effects of the intervention
Multiple baseline
Single-case experimental design in which measures are taken on two or more behaviors or on a single behavior in two or more situations. A particular intervention is introduced for each at different times. If behavior change is coincident with each introduction, this is strong evidence the intervention caused the change
Phenotypes
Observable characteristics or behaviors of an individual
Genotypes
Specific genetic makeup of an individual
human genome project
ongoing scientific attempt to develop a comprehensive map of all human genes
endophenotypes
Genetic mechanism that contributes to the underlying problems causing the symptoms and difficulties experienced by people with psychological disorders
family studies
Genetic study that examines patterns of traits and behaviors among relatives
Proband
“In genetics research, the individual displaying the trait or characteristic being studied”
adoption studies
“In genetics research, the study of first-degree relatives reared in different families and environments. If they share common characteristics, such as a disorder, this finding suggests that those characteristics have a genetic component”
twin studies
“In genetics research, the comparison of twins with unrelated or less closely related individuals. If twins, particularly monozygotic twins who share identical genotypes, share common characteristics such as a disorder, even if they were reared in different environments, then strong evidence of genetic involvement in those characteristics exists.”
Genetic linkage analysis
study that seeks to match the inheritance pattern of a disorder to that of a genetic marker. This helps researchers establish the location of the game responsible for the disorder
Genetic marker
Inherited characteristic for which the chromosomal location of the responsible gene is known
Association studies
“Research strategy for comparing genetic markersin groups of people with and without a particular disorder”
Cross-sectional design
“Methodology to examine a characteristic by comparing individuals of different ages (contrast with longitudinal design”
Cohort
Participants in each age group of a study with a cross-sectional design
cohort effect
“Observation that people of different age groups differ in their values and experiences”
Retrospective information
“Literally “the view back;” data collected by examining records or recollections of the past. It is limited by the accuracy, validity, and thoroughness of the sources”
longitudinal design
“Systematic study of changes in the same individual or group examined over time (contrast with cross-sectional design)”
Cross-generational effect
“Limit on the generalizability of longitudinal research because the group under study may differ from others in culture and experience”
sequential design
“Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs involving repeated study of different cohorts over time”
Informed consent
“Ethical requirement whereby research subjects agree to participate in a study only after they receive full disclosure about the nature of the study and their own role in it”
