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PYSC 100 > PSYC 100 Chapter 8 > Flashcards

PSYC 100 Chapter 8 Flashcards

1
Q

Mental Representation

A

internal mental symbols standing for objects/events/states/ etc

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2
Q

Mental Representations are organized into…

A

Concepts

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3
Q

Concepts

A

knowledge/ideas about a set of objects/actions/characteristics that share core properties

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4
Q

Concept Hierarchy

A

Superordinate, Basic, Subordinate

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5
Q

Superordinate

A

Broadest category

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6
Q

Basic

A

2nd one, less broad but not super narrow

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7
Q

Subordinate

A

Narrowest category

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8
Q

Prototype

A

best example or average member of the concept;
incorporating lots of features associated with the concept

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9
Q

Problem-solving approaches

A

Trial-and-error, Algorithm, Insight

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10
Q

Trial-and-Error

A

try actions at random until finding something
that works

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11
Q

Algorithm

A

step-by-step procedure used to solve a problem

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12
Q

Problem-solving

A

Developing strategies to accomplish goals

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13
Q

Insight

A

a sudden, conscious change in understanding of the
the problem that leads to solution, aha moment
Subject to unconscious cognitive processing
Subject to mood

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14
Q

In what mood will Insight be best

A

Happier mood

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15
Q

Obstacles of problem-solving

A

Salience of surface similarities, Mental sets, Functional Fixedness

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16
Q

Salience of surface similarities

A

When we focus on the superficial properties of a problem

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17
Q

Mental sets

A

Prior problem provided a mental framework on how to solve a later problem
Could “inspire” in a certain strategy
Could also get “stuck” in a certain strategy

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18
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

Hard time realizing an object with a traditional purpose can be used another way
Can be overcome by “restructuring”

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19
Q

Bounded rationality

A

we have limited information, cognitive
resources, time, etc.

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20
Q

Dual Processing Theory

A

Controlled system vs. Automatic system

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21
Q

controlled system

A

Slow-acting system that requires conscious attention and effort and allows rational and logical thought
ex. Writing an essay, navigating an unfamiliar town, playing chess

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22
Q

Automatic system

A

A fast and effortless system allows intuitive reactions and responses
ex. reading simple sentences, driving a familiar highway, feeling disgusted at the sight of rotten food

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23
Q

Heuristic

A

Mental shortcuts used for reasoning

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24
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

We judge the likelihood of an event by how similar it looks (“superficial similarity”) to a well-known example, base rate fallacy is neglected

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25
Q

Base rate

A

how common something is in the general population

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26
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

We judge the likelihood of an event based on the ease with which it comes to mind

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27
Q

Affective heuristic

A

We use the affection associated
with the objects/events to make
judgments and decisions about
them

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28
Q

Cognitive bias

A

Systematic error in thinking

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29
Q

Framing

A

the way a question is formed can influence the
decisions made

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30
Q

Confirmation bias

A

The tendency to look for and weigh evidence that confirms preexisting beliefs more strongly than evidence that is inconsistent with those beliefs

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31
Q

Hindsight bias

A

Tendency to overestimate how well we would have predicted something that has already happened

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32
Q

Language

A

a largely arbitrary system of communication that combines symbols in rule-based ways to create meaning

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33
Q

Arbitrary

A

made up of learned symbols
Generally, words in no way reflect what they refer to
exceptions: hieroglyphs or onomatopoeias

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34
Q

Structured

A

governed by rules, Rules may vary between languages,
but there are still rules nonetheless

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35
Q

generative

A

Expresses limitless meanings
-Allows us to convey new ideas
-Allows us to BOTH understand and create sentences never heard before

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36
Q

Grammar

A

structure of how language parts are put together
How we can (and can’t) put units at different levels together in a meaningful way

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37
Q

Syntax

A

specific grammatic rules about how words and phrases are formed into a sentence
How we can (and can’t) put words together in a meaningful way

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38
Q

Practical rules

A

Extralinguistic information that helps interpretation

39
Q

Phonemes

A

smallest units of sound in a language, building blocks of words

40
Q

Phonology

A

study of sounds

41
Q

phonotactics

A

the rules of putting phonemes together

42
Q

morphemes

A

smallest units that carry meaning in a language
- Convey information about semantics (meaning)
- Can be full words (content)l
- Can also modify or convey grammatical information (function)

43
Q

Sentences to Phonemes

A

Sentence- Phrase- Words- Morphemes- Phonemes

44
Q

Practical rules / Extralinguistic information

A

other stuff that helps us interpret language
● Facial expressions
● Tone
● Gestures
● Caps
Bold
Spacing
Italics
Etc

45
Q

Semantics

A

Meaning

46
Q

Dialects

A

variations of the same language
● Used by groups of people from specific geographic areas, social groups,
or ethnic backgrounds
● Speakers of different dialects can generally understand each other, but
speakers of different languages cannot

47
Q

Linguistic Determinism Hypothesis / Whorfian hypothesis

A

Different languages impose different ways of understanding the world that can constrain and shape our thinking

48
Q

Linguistic Determinism

A

Language determines our thought processes
Can’t have thoughts you don’t have words for

49
Q

Linguistic relativity

A

Language shapes our thought processes
Studies suggest language shapes some aspects of perception, memory, and thought
-Color words & color perception

50
Q

Prenatal

A

Learn mom’s voice
Start picking up on native language

51
Q

0-1 years old

A

Differentiation of universal phonemes
Preference for phonemes of native language develops around 10-12m
Develops some meaning understand around 6-9m
Babbling (simple to complex)
Learn to control the noises they make

52
Q

1-2 years old

A

Starts producing words
One-word stage= One word to convey an entire thought
Overgeneralizes
comprehension precedes production (understands way more language than they can produce)

53
Q

2-3 years old

A

vocabulary explosion
Two-word phrases with syntax
ex. give book, dog play
Telegraphic speech- very efficient; think telegram
could use emerging grammar to learn new words

54
Q

3+ years old

A

learn more syntax
produce complex sentences
by 5, know (almost) all grammar
use more and more morphological markers
apply overregularization rule
runned- ran
eated- ate

55
Q

Critical period

A

Window of time where if something is going to be learned, it has to happen during this time or else it will never happen (FALSE)

56
Q

Sensitive period

A

Window of time where people have an easier time learning something, evidence from 2nd language
-Proficiency in 2nd language declines with age
-it is not impossible to learn a 2nd language later in life, just becomes harder with age

57
Q

Sign language

A

Uses visual instead of auditory communication

58
Q

Bilingualism

A

Proficiency and fluency in two languages
Slows learning of syntax in children
Increased Metalinguistic insight

59
Q

Metalinguistic insight

A

Awareness of how language is structured and used

60
Q

2 types of bilinguals

A

Simultaneous vs sequential bilinguals

61
Q

Simultaneous bilingual

A

Learns two languages at the same time

62
Q

sequential bilingual

A

learnt one language before the other

63
Q

Theories of language acquisition

A
  • Imitation theory
  • Nativist theory
  • Social pragmatics theory
  • General cognitive processing theory
64
Q

Imitation theory

A

Children hear language and imitate it
Behaviorist account (nurture-y)
Problem: Does not account for the generative nature of language

65
Q

Nativist theory

A

Nature-y
Children are born with expectations about language (already have some knowledge about syntax)
Children apply syntax rules when they shouldn’t
Problem: Difficult to falsify

66
Q

Social Pragmatics theory

A

Children infer meaning from social interactions and context
infer the topic of conversation from actions expressions gestures etc
Problem: assumes children know a lot and are able to infer a lot (abt peoples intentions and thoughts)

67
Q

general cognitive processing theory

A

children learn language the same way they learn everything else
problem: children learn language better than adults, but adults are better at learning most other things; also, doesn’t explain language-specific brain areas

68
Q

Non-Human communication

A

Scent and visual displays
Basic messages about sex and violence

69
Q

Human vs Animal communication

A
  • Not as complex or structured
  • Mostly Fixed
  • Specific messages
  • Not generative
  • No way to communicate new ideas
70
Q

Cognition

A

All of the mental activities associated with thinking, including knowing, remembering, solving problems, making judgments and decisions, and communicating.

71
Q

Cognitive psychology

A

The scientific study of mental activities and how they operate

72
Q

belief perseverance

A

The tendency for people to resist changing their beliefs, even when faced with disconfirming evidence.

73
Q

loss aversion

A

The tendency to make choices, including riskier ones, that minimize losses

74
Q

overconfidence bias

A

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s knowledge and judgments

75
Q

Pragmatics

A

Rules that govern the practical aspects of language use, such as taking turns, using intonation and gestures, and talking to different types of people

76
Q

Overregularization error

A

A language error made by children that involves extending rules of word formation. These errors reveal children’s understanding of grammar

77
Q

intelligence

A

The capability to think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, reason, plan, solve problems, learn from experience, and acquire new knowledge.

78
Q

factor analysis

A

A statistical technique that involves analyzing the interrelations among different tests to look for the common factors underlying the scores.

79
Q

general intelligence (g factor)

A

A general mental ability that Charles Spearman hypothesized is required for virtually any mental test.

80
Q

fluid intelligence

A

A component of general intelligence that involves the ability to deal with new and unusual problems

81
Q

crystallized intelligence

A

A component of general intelligence that involves accumulated knowledge and skills

82
Q

savant syndrome

A

A syndrome in developmentally disabled individuals that involves the presence of unusual talents that contrast with low levels of general intelligence

83
Q

mental age

A

A number that represents the average age at which children perform closest to a given child’s score on an intelligence test.

84
Q

intelligence quotient (IQ)

A

A measure of intelligence that is calculated by dividing a child’s mental age by his or her chronological age and then multiplying by 100.

85
Q

achievement test

A

A test that is designed to measure how much a person has learned over a certain period of time

86
Q

aptitude test

A

A test designed to measure a person’s potential to learn new skills

87
Q

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

A

An intelligence test composed of many subtests that can be combined into a single composite to capture overall ability. Scores on separate subtests of the WAIS can be used to identify relative strengths and weaknesses that are useful to educators and therapists

88
Q

standardization

A

A process of making test scores more meaningful by defining them in relation to the performance of a pretested group.

89
Q

reliability

A

The degree to which a measure yields consistent results each time it is administered

90
Q

validity

A

The appropriateness or accuracy of a conclusion or decision

91
Q

stereotype threat

A

A concern that one’s performance or behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group

92
Q

achievement gap

A

Persistent differences in the performance of certain groups of people, usually based on characteristics like race or gender

93
Q

heritability

A

An indication of how much variation in phenotype across people is due to differences in genotype

94
Q

mindset

A

A set of attitudes or beliefs that shape how a person perceives and responds to the world. In the domain of intelligence, a mindset may be an implicit belief about where intellectual ability comes from

PYSC 100 (11 decks)

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