PSYC 100 Chapter 8 Flashcards
Mental Representation
internal mental symbols standing for objects/events/states/ etc
Mental Representations are organized into…
Concepts
Concepts
knowledge/ideas about a set of objects/actions/characteristics that share core properties
Concept Hierarchy
Superordinate, Basic, Subordinate
Superordinate
Broadest category
Basic
2nd one, less broad but not super narrow
Subordinate
Narrowest category
Prototype
best example or average member of the concept;
incorporating lots of features associated with the concept
Problem-solving approaches
Trial-and-error, Algorithm, Insight
Trial-and-Error
try actions at random until finding something
that works
Algorithm
step-by-step procedure used to solve a problem
Problem-solving
Developing strategies to accomplish goals
Insight
a sudden, conscious change in understanding of the
the problem that leads to solution, aha moment
Subject to unconscious cognitive processing
Subject to mood
In what mood will Insight be best
Happier mood
Obstacles of problem-solving
Salience of surface similarities, Mental sets, Functional Fixedness
Salience of surface similarities
When we focus on the superficial properties of a problem
Mental sets
Prior problem provided a mental framework on how to solve a later problem
Could “inspire” in a certain strategy
Could also get “stuck” in a certain strategy
Functional Fixedness
Hard time realizing an object with a traditional purpose can be used another way
Can be overcome by “restructuring”
Bounded rationality
we have limited information, cognitive
resources, time, etc.
Dual Processing Theory
Controlled system vs. Automatic system
controlled system
Slow-acting system that requires conscious attention and effort and allows rational and logical thought
ex. Writing an essay, navigating an unfamiliar town, playing chess
Automatic system
A fast and effortless system allows intuitive reactions and responses
ex. reading simple sentences, driving a familiar highway, feeling disgusted at the sight of rotten food
Heuristic
Mental shortcuts used for reasoning
Representativeness heuristic
We judge the likelihood of an event by how similar it looks (“superficial similarity”) to a well-known example, base rate fallacy is neglected
Base rate
how common something is in the general population
Availability Heuristic
We judge the likelihood of an event based on the ease with which it comes to mind
Affective heuristic
We use the affection associated
with the objects/events to make
judgments and decisions about
them
Cognitive bias
Systematic error in thinking
Framing
the way a question is formed can influence the
decisions made
Confirmation bias
The tendency to look for and weigh evidence that confirms preexisting beliefs more strongly than evidence that is inconsistent with those beliefs
Hindsight bias
Tendency to overestimate how well we would have predicted something that has already happened
Language
a largely arbitrary system of communication that combines symbols in rule-based ways to create meaning
Arbitrary
made up of learned symbols
Generally, words in no way reflect what they refer to
exceptions: hieroglyphs or onomatopoeias
Structured
governed by rules, Rules may vary between languages,
but there are still rules nonetheless
generative
Expresses limitless meanings
-Allows us to convey new ideas
-Allows us to BOTH understand and create sentences never heard before
Grammar
structure of how language parts are put together
How we can (and can’t) put units at different levels together in a meaningful way
Syntax
specific grammatic rules about how words and phrases are formed into a sentence
How we can (and can’t) put words together in a meaningful way
Practical rules
Extralinguistic information that helps interpretation
Phonemes
smallest units of sound in a language, building blocks of words
Phonology
study of sounds
phonotactics
the rules of putting phonemes together
morphemes
smallest units that carry meaning in a language
- Convey information about semantics (meaning)
- Can be full words (content)l
- Can also modify or convey grammatical information (function)
Sentences to Phonemes
Sentence- Phrase- Words- Morphemes- Phonemes
Practical rules / Extralinguistic information
other stuff that helps us interpret language
● Facial expressions
● Tone
● Gestures
● Caps
Bold
Spacing
Italics
Etc
Semantics
Meaning
Dialects
variations of the same language
● Used by groups of people from specific geographic areas, social groups,
or ethnic backgrounds
● Speakers of different dialects can generally understand each other, but
speakers of different languages cannot
Linguistic Determinism Hypothesis / Whorfian hypothesis
Different languages impose different ways of understanding the world that can constrain and shape our thinking
Linguistic Determinism
Language determines our thought processes
Can’t have thoughts you don’t have words for
Linguistic relativity
Language shapes our thought processes
Studies suggest language shapes some aspects of perception, memory, and thought
-Color words & color perception
Prenatal
Learn mom’s voice
Start picking up on native language
0-1 years old
Differentiation of universal phonemes
Preference for phonemes of native language develops around 10-12m
Develops some meaning understand around 6-9m
Babbling (simple to complex)
Learn to control the noises they make
1-2 years old
Starts producing words
One-word stage= One word to convey an entire thought
Overgeneralizes
comprehension precedes production (understands way more language than they can produce)
2-3 years old
vocabulary explosion
Two-word phrases with syntax
ex. give book, dog play
Telegraphic speech- very efficient; think telegram
could use emerging grammar to learn new words
3+ years old
learn more syntax
produce complex sentences
by 5, know (almost) all grammar
use more and more morphological markers
apply overregularization rule
runned- ran
eated- ate
Critical period
Window of time where if something is going to be learned, it has to happen during this time or else it will never happen (FALSE)
Sensitive period
Window of time where people have an easier time learning something, evidence from 2nd language
-Proficiency in 2nd language declines with age
-it is not impossible to learn a 2nd language later in life, just becomes harder with age
Sign language
Uses visual instead of auditory communication
Bilingualism
Proficiency and fluency in two languages
Slows learning of syntax in children
Increased Metalinguistic insight
Metalinguistic insight
Awareness of how language is structured and used
2 types of bilinguals
Simultaneous vs sequential bilinguals
Simultaneous bilingual
Learns two languages at the same time
sequential bilingual
learnt one language before the other
Theories of language acquisition
- Imitation theory
- Nativist theory
- Social pragmatics theory
- General cognitive processing theory
Imitation theory
Children hear language and imitate it
Behaviorist account (nurture-y)
Problem: Does not account for the generative nature of language
Nativist theory
Nature-y
Children are born with expectations about language (already have some knowledge about syntax)
Children apply syntax rules when they shouldn’t
Problem: Difficult to falsify
Social Pragmatics theory
Children infer meaning from social interactions and context
infer the topic of conversation from actions expressions gestures etc
Problem: assumes children know a lot and are able to infer a lot (abt peoples intentions and thoughts)
general cognitive processing theory
children learn language the same way they learn everything else
problem: children learn language better than adults, but adults are better at learning most other things; also, doesn’t explain language-specific brain areas
Non-Human communication
Scent and visual displays
Basic messages about sex and violence
Human vs Animal communication
- Not as complex or structured
- Mostly Fixed
- Specific messages
- Not generative
- No way to communicate new ideas
Cognition
All of the mental activities associated with thinking, including knowing, remembering, solving problems, making judgments and decisions, and communicating.
Cognitive psychology
The scientific study of mental activities and how they operate
belief perseverance
The tendency for people to resist changing their beliefs, even when faced with disconfirming evidence.
loss aversion
The tendency to make choices, including riskier ones, that minimize losses
overconfidence bias
The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s knowledge and judgments
Pragmatics
Rules that govern the practical aspects of language use, such as taking turns, using intonation and gestures, and talking to different types of people
Overregularization error
A language error made by children that involves extending rules of word formation. These errors reveal children’s understanding of grammar
intelligence
The capability to think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, reason, plan, solve problems, learn from experience, and acquire new knowledge.
factor analysis
A statistical technique that involves analyzing the interrelations among different tests to look for the common factors underlying the scores.
general intelligence (g factor)
A general mental ability that Charles Spearman hypothesized is required for virtually any mental test.
fluid intelligence
A component of general intelligence that involves the ability to deal with new and unusual problems
crystallized intelligence
A component of general intelligence that involves accumulated knowledge and skills
savant syndrome
A syndrome in developmentally disabled individuals that involves the presence of unusual talents that contrast with low levels of general intelligence
mental age
A number that represents the average age at which children perform closest to a given child’s score on an intelligence test.
intelligence quotient (IQ)
A measure of intelligence that is calculated by dividing a child’s mental age by his or her chronological age and then multiplying by 100.
achievement test
A test that is designed to measure how much a person has learned over a certain period of time
aptitude test
A test designed to measure a person’s potential to learn new skills
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
An intelligence test composed of many subtests that can be combined into a single composite to capture overall ability. Scores on separate subtests of the WAIS can be used to identify relative strengths and weaknesses that are useful to educators and therapists
standardization
A process of making test scores more meaningful by defining them in relation to the performance of a pretested group.
reliability
The degree to which a measure yields consistent results each time it is administered
validity
The appropriateness or accuracy of a conclusion or decision
stereotype threat
A concern that one’s performance or behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group
achievement gap
Persistent differences in the performance of certain groups of people, usually based on characteristics like race or gender
heritability
An indication of how much variation in phenotype across people is due to differences in genotype
mindset
A set of attitudes or beliefs that shape how a person perceives and responds to the world. In the domain of intelligence, a mindset may be an implicit belief about where intellectual ability comes from
