PSYC 100 Chapter 11 Flashcards
Developmental Psychology
examines how people change—physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally—from infancy through old age
2 main questions of developmental psychology
- Does development happen in stages or continuously?
- What are the effects of nature and nurture on development?
Stage
distinct phases of a (nonhuman) animal’s life with sharp differences between them, Qualitative development
Continuous change
quantitative changes, or gradual changes in the amount or degree of functioning, much like a gradually sloping hill
maturation
refers to a series of genetically determined biological processes that enable orderly growth.
-Similar course across individuals
-Age-linked
-Relatively impervious to experience
experience
● Like learning
● Dependent on experience
● Variable across individuals
nature vs nurture
genetics vs experience
cross-sectional design
A methodological approach to studying development that compares participants of different age groups to one another. (most effective when there is a small difference between age groups) like taking snapshots
cohort effect
an effect or difference that is due to the members of an age group (or age cohort) sharing a common set of life experiences
gene-environment interaction
effect of genes may depend on the environment
Nature via nurture
individuals with certain genetic predispositions may actively seek out certain environments and then develop
Gene expression
environmental experience can turn genes on/off
longitudinal design
tracks individuals at different time points and looks for differences across those time points, like filming a movie. takes a lot of time and resources
attrition
subjects dropping out of a study before its over
pros and cons of longitudinal vs cross-sectional design
Pros Longitudinal:
Can examine
within-individual
developmental effects
Pros Cross-Sectional:
Cheaper and faster to
conduct study
Cons Longitudinal:
Takes 4 ever and may be subject to attrition
Cons Cross-Sectional:
Cohort effect
Sequential design
combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal: tracks multiple age groups across multiple time points
Chomsky
Believed that learning is a myth
Watson
Believed genetics had no impact on people if given the right experiences
Zygote
formed when the sperm fertilizes the egg
germinal stage
first 2 weeks of a zygote’s life, it begins to double and divide. forms a blastocyst that implants itself into the uterus
blastocyst
ball of identical cells that haven’t begun to take functions (no specialization yet)
percentage of zygotes flushed out before the embryonic stage
> %50
embryonic stage
2-8 weeks after conception.
The inner cells of the blastocyst form the embryo.
cells begin to differentiate and assume specific functions.
skeleton, limbs, facial features, major organs, etc. begin to form and separate themselves into the endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm layers.
the placenta and neural tube are formed
placenta
Where the blastocyst’s outermost cells meet the wall of the uterus, a mushy, slab-like structure is formed. this is the placenta. acts as a channel between the mother and the embryo. nutrients and oxygen pass from the mother to the offspring, and waste products pass out of the offspring through the mother.
endoderm layer
gut and digestive layers
ectoderm layer
cells of the nervous system and outer skin.
mesoderm layer
forms the skeletal system and voluntary muscles
fetus stage
Week 9 to birth
the embryo becomes the fetus
major organ systems established
stage of physical maturation
neural tube
A tubular structure is formed early in the embryonic stage from which the brain and spinal cord develop.
3 parts of the neural tube
1- Cerebellum, Spinal Cord, and Brainstem
2-Midbrain
3-Forebrain
glia
helps with the migration of neurons
Neural migration
the process in which glia create guide wires that move the newly created neurons to appropriate positions in the brain
organization of neurons
inside-out pattern, first-arriving neurons will become the innermost layer of the cortex, Later-arriving neurons pass these now-stationary cells to form the next layer, and these later arrivals are passed by even later arrivals
What provides a “wiring
diagram” guiding the neurons’
migration
genes
down syndrome
A developmental disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. It is characterized by intellectual disabilities, delays in motor development, and increased risk for a range of health problems
prematurity
born at or before 36 weeks
Viability point= 25 weeks
Underdeveloped lungs and brains
developmental delays
teratogens
Environmental agents that can interfere with healthy fetal development
teratogen examples
lead, mercury, carbon monoxide (such as from car exhaust), and some pesticides. Alcohol, cigarette smoke, X-rays, and diseases like rubella (German measles),
genetic disorders
random errors in cell division
reflexes
Automatic patterns of motor responses that are triggered by specific types of sensory stimulation.
examples of newborn reflexes
the rooting reflex: when you touch an infants cheek they will open their mouth as if rooting for the nipple
the sucking reflex
the grasping reflex
recognition of familiar voices
looking at things that reflect faces over other objects
imitating facial expressions
habituation
the most basic form of learning, involves a decreased response to repeated stimulation
dishabituation
The recovery of a response that has undergone habituation, typically as a result of the presentation of a novel stimulus.
motor development
Changes in the ability to coordinate and perform bodily movements
two general rules of infant motor development
- motor skills tend to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet.
- motor skills emerge from the center of the body outward.
cognitive development
Changes in all of the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
Piaget’s theory
Development happens in stages:
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operations
Formal operations
His theory is all about the development of schemas
through accommodation and assimilation
Assimilation
absorbing new experiences into a current schema
Accommodation
altering a schema, or making a new schema to make it more compatible with the experience
Sensorimotor Stage
0-2 years. The child develops knowledge through senses and actions but cannot yet think using symbols, namely language. During this stage, the child learns that objects continue to exist even when they are hidden.
Neural Proliferation
creation of new synaptic connections
Synaptic Pruning
trimming of unused connections
Myelination of axons
need this for faster signal translation for us to have quicker responses
Preoperational stage
2-7 years. The child masters the use of symbols but struggles to see situations from multiple perspectives or to imagine how situations can change. During this stage, children classify objects, but only according to a single feature, such as color or shape. They display Egocentrism and no theory of mind and also indicate an implicit understanding of false belief.
Concrete operational stage
7-11 years. Can perform mental operations about concrete (actual physical) events. Has the ability to use simple logic and operations but cannot think in hypotheticals (abstracts)
Formal operational age
11+ Can reason about abstract ideas (possibilities and hypotheticals) Can make and test predictions
more sophisticated logic. ex: if-then
criticism of Piaget’s theory
Development is more continuous
Underestimated children
Culturally biased methods and using his
own children
Piaget’s Stages Characterized by:
Sensorimotor: Knowledge based on
physical interactions
Preoperational: Use of symbols; display
egocentrism
Concrete operations: Simple logic/math; concrete
reasoning
Formal operations: Hypothetical reasoning;
fancy logic
Piaget’s Stages Lack:
Sensorimotor: Object
permanence
Preoperational: Conservation
Concrete operations: Abstract ideas
Formal operations: N/A
Violation of expectation
infants look longer at events that violate natural laws
Violation of expectation examples
object that magically disappears (violating object permanence),
passes through another solid object.
stops in midair,
rolls with incorrect acceleration down a slope,
or fits into a container that is impossibly small
Nervous system organization’s three most important processes
Neural proliferation, Synaptic pruning, Myelination of axons
vygotsky’s theory
Focused on social/cultural influences on
development
scaffolding
parents structure environments
for learning then they gradually remove
Ex: training wheels
Key: challenging but not overwhelming
social referencing
A process of using others’ facial expressions for information about how to react to a situation
Timeline of social development
4-7 months: can tell the difference between happy
and sad emotions – social referencing
● ~ 6 months: calm down hearing caregiver
approaching
● 11-12 months: fake cry for attention
attachment
The strong, enduring, emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver.
imprinting
A mechanism for establishing attachment early in life that operates according to a relatively simple rule of attaching to the first moving object an organism sees. A sensitive period in humans
Harlow’s Monkeys
“Cold” wire mother with milk vs “Warm” cloth mother without milk. Monkeys preferred the latter
Contact Comfort
positive emotions afforded by touch
Social Deprivation
When children are given little to no social interaction/contact comfort
2 types of attachment
Secure and Insecure
2 types of insecure attachment
Ambivalent and Avoidant
Secure attachment
Children who are securely attached use their caregiver as a secure base. They will explore, play with the toys, and even make wary overtures to the stranger, so long as the caregiver is present. Whenever the caregiver leaves, these infants will show minor distress. When she returns, they greet her with great enthusiasm and are quickly reassured.
(<60% of US babies)
Distressed when attachment figure leaves, quickly comforted when attachment figure returns
Insecure Attachment
When the child doesn’t use a caregiver as a secure base and is not reassured after a seperation
Insecure/Avoidant attachment
~10% of children
Act distant and aloof while the caregiver is present and although they search for the caregiver in their absence, they typically ignore them when they return. Although they look unruffled on the surface, the calmness is a mask for distress
Insecure/ambivalent attachment
~15% of children
don’t explore even in the caregiver’s presence and become very upset when they leave. Upon reunion, they act ambivalent. crying and running to her to be picked up but then kicking or slapping her in the struggle to get down
What causes different attachment styles
How responsive parents are, genes
temperament
A person’s characteristic patterns of emotion and behavior that are evident from an early age and argued to be genetically determined.
childhood
The period of life spanning the end of infancy (about age 2) and the start of adolescence
symbolic representation
The use of words, sounds, gestures, visual images, or objects to stand for other things. Begins in early childhood during the preoperational period.
Operations
the manipulation of schemas. involves imagining how things like people or objects might be different than they are or imagining the consequences of some event without needing to see it happen.
conservation
The idea that the physical properties of an object, such as mass, volume, and number, remain constant despite superficial changes in the object’s shape or form. Due to Heuristics
ex. glass cup experiment
theory of mind
the understanding that we and other people have minds, that these minds represent the world in different ways, and that these representations explain and predict how people behave.
4 types of parenting
Permissive, Authoritarian, Authoritative, Disengaged
Authoritarian parents
low on responsiveness and highly demanding. Provide minimal emotional support yet impose strict rules and standards for behavior. Authoritarian parents expect absolute obedience. Children must follow the rules out of respect for the parent’s authority, so authoritarian parents see no need to explain the rules. Failure to follow the rules, for any reason, may lead to severe punishment.
Permissive parents
High on responsiveness and low on the demanding scale. Are very warm and attentive to their children, but they set few rules and restrictions. They indulge their child’s needs and wishes, leading to a very unstructured daily life without strict time frames. Because there are so few rules, punishment is rare. Permissive parents also require very little of children, like doing chores or school work. In these households, anything goes.
Authoritative parents
Are both very responsive and very demanding. They establish and enforce clear rules and structure, but they explain their reasoning. They are also flexible in response to their children’s opinions and reasonable requests. Rules can be bent when the circumstances require it, and open discussion allows children to play an active role in determining the rules of the household, including consequences for misbehavior. These parents give their children responsibilities, along with the coaching required to meet those responsibilities with independence and maturity.
Disengaged Parents
Neither responsive nor demanding. Impose few rules and responsibilities but they are also relatively insensitive to their children’s needs. Disengaged parenting may emerge when parents are too overwhelmed by other concerns to focus on children rearing, leading to neglect.
Best and worst types of parenting
Best: Authoritative
Worst: Disengaged
adolscence
The period of transition between childhood and adulthood.
Puberty
the period of sexual maturation during which males and females become capable of reproduction. involves a chain reaction of hormonal release that stimulates changes in primary sex characteristics
Primary sex characteristics
Body structures, such as ovaries, testes, and external genitalia, that make sexual reproduction possible
secondary sex characteristics
Nonreproductive body structures, such as hips, torsos, voices, and body hair, that make the body look more “adult.”
What part of a teenager’s brain does not work like that of an adult
The fast-developing limbic system leads to
reward seeking
Less developed prefrontal areas lead to less
self-control
self-control
Ability to inhibit impulses to act
Predicts later social adjustment (ability to cope with frustration, inhibit
negative responses, etc.)
3 types of moral reasoning
pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional
Pre-conventional
In Kohlberg’s theory, a period in moral development in which people make moral judgments based on self-interest, such as avoiding punishments and gaining rewards
Conventional
In Kohlberg’s theory, a period in moral development in which people make moral judgments based on caring for others and upholding social roles and rules.
Postconventional stage
In Kohlberg’s theory, a period in moral development in which people make moral judgments based on their own ideals and broad moral principles
social identity
A sense of identity that is rooted in group memberships.
social identity
A sense of identity that is rooted in group memberships.
social identity
A sense of identity that is rooted in group memberships.
erik erikson on adolscence
The goal of adolescence is to
develop a clear sense of self-based on an
understanding of one’s past, present, and
future selves
* Individual identity & Social identity
emerging adulthood
The period between adolescence and adulthood, roughly the ages of 18 to 25, when people take time to finish schooling, gain financial independence from their parents, and establish careers and families.
social clock
A set of norms that govern the typical timing of life milestones like marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
two major challenges of adulthood according to erik erikson
to have a meaningful romantic partnership and make a difference in the world
physical advantages of getting older
arsenal of antibodies to defend against the common cold
physical disadvantages of getting older
reaction time, sensory acuity, muscle and bone strength, and cardiac output peak in early adulthood and then as early as the mid-to late 20’s they start to decline slowly and steadily. not only caued because of age but because people exercise less in adulthood
menopause
the natural end of menstruation
Alzheimer’s disease
a disorder characterized by a progressive and widespread loss of nerve cells, leading to memory problems, disorientation, and eventually total helplessness
With age there is a decline in
fluid intelligence (problems with both encoding and retrieving events from episodic memory)
With age there is an increase in
crystallized intelligence (accumulated knowledge)
