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PSY260 > PSY260 - 9. Procedural Memory > Flashcards

PSY260 - 9. Procedural Memory Flashcards

1
Q

What are skill memories?

A

Abilities that can improve over time
Skill learning: procedural learning
Practice in observation of others performing skills

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2
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

memory storage of skills + procedures.
tacit knowledge/implicit knowledge (remembering how to ride a bike)
often can only be expressed by performing specific skill
people have problems verbalizing what they are doing + why
very important in human motor performance.

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3
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

Some part genetic: innate behavioural traits allow them to acquire more info about environment, to get food, attention
Infants require additional info: learn rules of behaviour
Born with foundation, template to modify rules of some basic actions which they are born – procedural skills
can use fundemental skills to develop more complex skills

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4
Q

Skill memories

A

Cannot always be verbalized
Unconsciously acquired + retrieved
Basis for memories of events and facts

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5
Q

Skill memories

A

acquisition of variety of changes of fundemental skills:
•Motor skills
•Cognitive skills
•During development, diff physical + mental development that allow us to learn diff tasks – learning to walk
•Comes with experience, not necessarily with knowledge
•Implicit in neuronal wiring + muscular development

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6
Q

Skill memories

A

Perception: realize our actions will reward us to an extent
Cognitive understanding: ability to plan actions ahead of time to obtain what we desire
Nonassociative learning part of skill learning
Acquisition of skills akin to acquisition of episodic memory
Acquired as sequence of memories that are put into action
Require memory of objects, contexts that modify application of skill

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7
Q

Skill

A

enduring ability that develops with practice over time
Develops with practice
Various components of an action that needs to be coordinated
Improvements laid down as memory by operant conditioning
don’t always intend to learn a skill, we simply do it more effectively over time
ability to perform task that has been honed through learning

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8
Q

Skill

A
  1. Is difficult to convey to others
  2. May be acquired without awareness (non transferable to other conditions, don’t realize you’re getting better)
  3. Requires several repetitions
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9
Q

Memory for Events + Facts

A

doesn’t result in action

  1. Can be communicated flexibly
  2. Has content that is consciously accessible (you know what you need to do well, but you need practice)
  3. Can be acquired in single exposure (acquire it with one time learning, physical ability require something else)
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10
Q

Perceptual-motor skills

A

learned movement patterns guided by sensory inputs.
Enduring abilities developed with practice
perceptual: based on feedback (how well do we actually do), operant conditioning – decision to shape behaviour with goal in mind
•we have a goal + operant feedback system – compare with expectations

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11
Q

Closed skills

A

involve predefined sequence of movements (ballet, diving, gymnastics)
anything that deviates from our goal is unacceptable, we try to get closer to it, driving ourselves to a particular behaviour
•better at learning sequence of skills
•applicable in limited situations

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12
Q

Open skills

A

respond to environmental changes (soccer, hockey)
Any skill lies somewhere continuum from closed to open
•mental skills work in the same way
skills that require participants to respond based on predictions about changing demands of the environment

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13
Q

Cognitive Skills

A

emphasize problem solving/applying strategies (Tower of Hanoi puzzle)
•understanding how to manipulate environment
•we start with rules

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14
Q

Cognitive Skills

A

•use of tools we consider to be a human trait
•ability to understand how to manipulate things extends to ability to use tools
•we use tools to get stuff we need
Tool use involves perceptual-motor + cognitive skills

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15
Q

Cognitive Skills

A

Require you to solve problems/apply strategies rather than move your body based on what you perceive
Ability to reason + solve problems/perform tasks that require sorting through large amounts of knowledge
Humans not only animals that can learn cognitive skills
•primates can learn how to use tools
•Dolphins can be trained to repeat an action
•Many skills involve both cognitive + perceptual motor components

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16
Q

Talent

A

mastering a skill with little effort (“gift”)

propensity to learn particular skill + apply it

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17
Q

Expertise

A

performing skill better than most people
ability to hone skills, closed + open skills, point close to optimal – considered to be experts
total amount of practice is critical in predicting wether person will be an expert
Perceptual learning may contribute to the superior abilities of experts

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18
Q

Rotary pursuit task

A

user must hold the end of a pointed stick above target on a rotating disk
Skills of identical twins reared apart became more similar
Skills of fraternal twins reared apart became less similar
Genetic differences may become more apparent with practice
More practice people have, more their differences are due to genetic differences

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19
Q

Rotary pursuit task

A

•over time you get better
•older adults don’t acquire ability as easily
•when you come back to do tests on another day, young adults better at doing task rather than daythey acquired skills
improving skill during acquisition, but after acquisition phase, their plateau ends up higher + improving

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20
Q

Rotary Pursuit Task: Effects of Practice on Performance

A

older adults reach plateau after acquisition phase
over next night, people go to sleep - older adults don’t sleep as well
sleep spindles increase after you’ve learned something new, heightened immediately after learning, increased spindle density

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21
Q

Results:

A

Training improves performance (speed & accuracy)
Non-trained (control) sequence is not improved
Improvement does not transfer to contralateral hand
Contralateral motor cortex activity is increased

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22
Q

Acquiring skills

A

Roles of basic conditioning responses

Strategy depends on prior learning

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23
Q

Acquiring skills

A

Modifying old skills: once we have a skill consolidated, it becomes difficult to modify
once you learn a certain style/method + we optimize that, our brain changes to perform that skill again and again
if we are forced to make a change, there’s a drop in ability to perform a task, it takes a while to do it again
it is much easier to perform old habit than acquire a new one

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24
Q

Perceptual-Motor Skills

A

Researchers often study athletes and chess masters.
Games require variety of perceptual-motor + cognitive skills; diverse levels of expertise
Chess masters quickly focus on key board locations, empty squares, relevant chess pieces; amateurs slowly scan many locations

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25
Q

Perceptual-Motor Skills

A

performance requires triggering of motor patterns without conscious control all the time
once triggered you perform the entire motor action – more thoroughly when we’ve practiced it
we can rehearse to develop skills consciously
overlap betw motor + cognitive skills in lots of activities
Learn movement patterns guided by sensory inputs

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26
Q

Practice

A

Knowledge of results—performance feedback: improves practice effectiveness.
expression of skill requires activation of neurons
more time to perform the skill, faster better you’ll be able to perform in the future

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27
Q

Power Law of Learning

A

for perceptual-motor skills, learning first occurs rapidly, then slows, following predictable pattern
More proficiency = less room for improvement
early learning shows large gains, but after initial improvement, additional training leads to much smaller increases in speed
possible to overcome + enhance effects of practice
Observational learning

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28
Q

Feedback

A

not all feedback is equally helpful
kind of feedback can determine how practice effects performance
in simple tasks: Frequent feedback = good short-term, but mediocre long-term performance
Infrequent feedback = mediocre short-term, but better long-term performance

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29
Q

Acquiring Skills

A

operant conditioning: doing something well, perfecting closed/open skills
•reward implies feedback
•practice without feedback is nonassociative situation
•no feedback – better at certain motions, better conditioned, but you don’t consciously know what is going on

30
Q

Acquiring Skills

A

reward = repetition of methods/activity
body need to repair themselves + prepare for next time you use them
frequent: quick improvements, but plateau
infrequent: organs coordinated in better manner
20 min practice a day: optimal time to practice any sort of activity

31
Q

Apportioned Effort

A

Massed practice: concentrated practice - Better short term retention + performance
Spaced practice: practice spread out over several sessions
spread out over several sessions - better retention in long run
better organization of muscles + brain after a period of break

32
Q

Acquiring Skills: Practice Conditions

A

Constant Practice: repeatedly practicing same skill under same conditions with very limited set of materials + skills
Variable practice: practicing a skill in varied conditions + more varied materials + skills - better performance in later tests
Optimal practice schedules are debatable: depends on goals of practice

33
Q

Retention and Forgetting

A

Skill decay: Skill memories deteriorate with nonuse
Retention of perceptual motor skills better than retention of cognitive skills
Forgetting occurs after last performance as time goes by less forgetting occurs, similar to learning curves
Major determinant is similarity betw retrieval conditions + conditions person experience while learning

34
Q

Retention and Forgetting

A

Interference can occur even within a single day
Skills more complex/distinctive less susceptible to interference effects
Proactive Interference: difficulty learning + remembering newer material
Retroactive Interference: difficulty remembering older material
prior situation becomes less in focus, can be overwritten
more focused we are at a particular skill, easier to disrupt performance of skill

35
Q

Transfer of Training

A

skill memory can be so specific, introduction of additional cues can disrupt performance
•can be difficult to express skill in a diff context
•stage fright: underneath all we can’t perform in a diff context
•skills can seem to transfer to novel situations relatively easy

36
Q

Transfer specificity

A

restricted applicability of learned skills to specific situations
Encoding + subsequent practice in a certain context might lead to transfer specificity: limits transfer of training
Identical elements theory: Thorndike proposed that transfer of learned abilities depends on # of elements in new situation identical to situation in which skills are encoded
stabilize skill memories by converting them into memories for predefined sequences of actions - motor programs

37
Q

Apes

A

humans use hands to manipulate environment: motor skill acquired on one hand doesn’t transfer to another hand
difficult transfering skills to other appendages
chipanzee brain organized that allows them to know what is happening on their feet
extent to which we can adapt an appendage not useful, but we can accumulate skill that allows our feet to manipulate the environment

38
Q

Models of Skill Memory: Motor Programs and Rules

A

initial learning of a new skill, we tend to follow set of rules (declarative)
With practice: Steps become automatic (motor programs).
Attention to the declarative rules become unimportant

39
Q

Models of Skill Memory: Motor Programs and Rules

A

consciously aware of the skill initially
aware of goal + what action we are taking
as we develop, despite of cognitive level of regulation we impose on skill, our body + brain is becoming implicitly adaptive
Motor programs/habits: sequences of movements that an organism can perform virtually automatically

40
Q

Models of Skill Memory: Motor Programs and Rules

A

Skill memories can be memories for events and facts
declarative memory becomes an implicit nondeclarative memory: memories not easily put into words
in end we can perform without explicit thought

41
Q

Stages of Acquisition: Cognitive stage

A

full attention to instructions, models, feedback
emphasize active thinking required to encode skills
depend on memories of verbalized facts/rules

42
Q

Stages of Acquisition: Associative stage

A

need cues, reminders for actions part of skill

learners begin using stereotyped actions when performing skill + rely less on actively recalled memories of rules

43
Q

Stages of Acquisition: Autonomous stage

A

loss of the ability to verbalize process
specific movements being performed much less dependent on verbalized memories for events + facts
•Thinking too much about what you’re doing when you perform a skill can actually impair performance
Three stages are obstructions, primarily descriptive
Learned abilities may rely on different kinds of memory as practice progresses

44
Q

Brain Substrates

A

Spinal cord + brainstem control and coordinate skill movements.
Regions involved in sensation and perception (sensory cortices) involved in info processing during skill learning.
sensory regions important in initial acquisition
actions change depending on context

45
Q

Basal ganglia

A

clusters of ganglia neurons at base of forebrain, close to hippocampus
Relay sensory info from cortex to thalamus + brain stem
Involved in activation + control of movement velocity, direction + amplitude + preparing to move

46
Q

Basal ganglia

A

ascending pathway from basal ganglia that activate cortical areas to get info about context + consequences in behaviour
Increased activity in basal ganglia as individuals learn cognitive skills + to make judgments

47
Q

Basal ganglia

A

address attributes important to our well being
send info to planning centres + about environment
get feedback
important and perceptual motor learning that involves generating motor responses based on specific environmental cues

48
Q

Basal ganglia

A

Basal ganglia sends outputs signals mainly to the thalamus and to the brainstem
initiating + maintaining movement
Practicing a skill can change how basal ganglia circuits participate in performance of skill + synaptic plasticity is basic neural mechanisms enabling size changes

49
Q

Brain Regions

A

Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, brainstem, spinal cord
circuit can operate without conscious awareness + allows us to continually work toward our goal

50
Q

Learning and Memory in Everyday Life—

Are Video Games Good for the Brain?

A
  • Video game-playing proficiency requires perceptual-motor + cognitive skill development.
  • College students who played high-action video games increased visual attention abilities compared with control group
  • hard to be proficien, can understand the rules, need visual attention abilities
51
Q

Cerebellum and Timing

A

important in encoding + retrieving skill memories

coordination

52
Q

Cerebellum and Timing

A

inputs from spinal cord, sensory systems + cerebral cortex
outputs to spinal cord + cortical motor systems
Important in learning precisely timed movement sequences (dancing)

53
Q

Neoplastic changes in the brain following motor skill learning

A

Sensorimotor circuits required for learning skills
Damage to basal ganglia impairs goal-directed locomotion
plastic changes in brain
requires cognitive + physical changes

54
Q

Neoplastic changes in the brain following motor skill learning

A

damage – parkinson’s disease
coordination of frontal cortex, sensory cortices, cerebellum + basal ganglia
Cortical regions required for sensorimotor coordination
Cerebral cortex involved in performing particular skill often expansion area of practice
Measures of blood flow reveal larger areas of activation + sensorimotor cortices after extensive practice

55
Q

Neoplastic changes in the brain following motor skill learning

A

Practice can change amount of cortical gray matter
Perceptual motor skill learning associated with expansion of representations sensory cortex involved in performing skill
Practicing perceptual motor skill can cause representations within motor cortex to expand
Representational expansion reflects strengthening + weakening of connections within cortex resulting from synaptic plasticity

56
Q

What happens in Periphery

A

Plasticity occurs at neuromuscular junction
Motor skill learning involves changes in musculature
if we can’t coordinate muscles in periphery, we can’t do it
more synapses at muscular junctions that are used more often - can have long term changes such as potentiation

57
Q

What happens in Periphery

A

muscles work better when working in concert with one another = more synapses between one another
opposing sets of actions

58
Q

Blocking action

A

Blocking action of ion exchangers results in longer Ca2+ retention in terminal
postsynaptic elements that affect presynaptic membrane activity
possible release of neurotransmitter
ability to regulate presynaptic terminal activity

59
Q

Blocking action

A

amount released affects postsynaptic
Ca comes in = neurotransmitter release
Removal of Ca requires active transport – requires coordination of Ca pumps

60
Q

Blocking action

A

Shut down these pumps = more neurotransmitter is released = more likely to fire
Ways of regulating strength of activity in the periphery

61
Q

Sleep Learning

A

Memory consolidation Integration of new experiences Rehearsal of new skills
Absorb large amounts of new info quickly by going directly to subconscious mind

62
Q

Sleep

A

Sleep is diff from rest
During sleep: changes in hormone use, electrical changes – allows rehearsal of events that occurred during the day: involves sleep spindles

63
Q

Sleep

A

Sleep consolidates skills

Sleep during day after learning – no improvement

64
Q

Sleep

A

No sleep – do somewhat worse
Students given alcohol – after practice – then went to sleep = improved
Alcohol as they went to sleep, wiped out learning
Correlate well with acquired skill levels during sleep

65
Q

Implicit learning

A

Explicit learning: learn skill + able to verbalize how it is done
Produces implicit memories
occurs without learner being consciously aware of improving
anterograde amnesia show improvement even if they don’t know that they are practicing

66
Q

Implicit learning

A

Serial reaction time task: participants learn to press one of four keys as soon as visual cue indicates which key to press
Participants begin to get a feel for repeating sequential patterns and anticipate no awareness sequences were repeating patterns
Perceptual motor skills more likely than cognitive skills to be learned implicitly

67
Q

Neural activity during perceptual motor skill learning

A

encoding/control of skills by basal ganglia changes as learning progresses
Basal ganglia developed motor plan that directed movements until trial ended
Automatically engaged motor programs gradually replaced active controlled movement

68
Q

Are skill memory stored in cerebral cortex?

A

Behavioural stages of skill acquisition paralleled by changes in cortical activity
begin learning motor skill that requires sequential finger movements, part of Motor cortex activated during performance increases rapidly during first training session + more gradually in later sessions
Consistent with power law of learning

69
Q

Are skill memory stored in cerebral cortex?

A

Period of fast learning involves processes that select + establish optimal plans for performing particular task, subsequent slower stages of learning reflect long-term structural changes of basic motor control circuits in cortex
Wide variety of sensory + motor events activate circuits in cerebral cortex, brain regions contribute to skill learning + performance

70
Q

The cerebellum and timing

A

Cerebellar changes that occur during learning of mirror reading tasks are lateralized – different in each hemisphere, left cerebellum showing decreased activity + right cerebellum showing increased activity with training

71
Q

The cerebellum and timing

A

Changes and cerebellar activity during learning of cognitive skills reflect learning of motor sequences required for performing cognitive activity
Cerebellum, cerebral cortex and basal ganglia each critical in different ways to skill learning
Importance of each for encoding of performing depends on particular skill and level of expertise
Cerebellum most critical for timing; cerebral cortex most critical for controlling complex action sequences; basal ganglia most critical for linking sensory events to responses

72
Q

The cerebellum and timing

A

At different points in learning process: cerebellum, visual cortex + motor cortex may work together early on to coordinate timing + sequencing of movements
After extensive practice, basal ganglia may begin to initiate + control more automatic sequences
Skill learning associated with gradual changes in firing of neurons in these areas during performance of skill
Practice can change structure of neural circuits to make control + coordination of movement/thoughts more accurate + efficient

PSY260 (14 decks)

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