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PSY260 > PSY260 - 8. Episodic & Semantic Memory > Flashcards

PSY260 - 8. Episodic & Semantic Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Sensory input carried by ascending activating systems

A

activates thalamus + hypothalamus - brain activates, ready to respond to stimulus
other regions activated simultaneously, but assess different aspects of stimulus (dangerous, want, like)
has yet to activate sensory cortex
info goes from hind brain to higher levels
cortical levels: explicit level

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2
Q

Sensory input carried by ascending activating systems

A
  • Cholinergic, dopaminergic, adrenergic
  • Activate limbic and cortical structures
  • Responses modified by conditioning, implicit learning
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3
Q

Emotional + state-dependent regulation + memory

A

what we learn, how strong we learn depends on our emotion + physiological state

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4
Q

Emotional + state-dependent regulation + memory

A
  • emotional context
  • Physiological need
  • Papez circuit, amygdala
  • ANS
  • Context relationships – hippocampus, amygdala
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5
Q

Emotional + state-dependent regulation + memory

A

fear conditioning

keeps us within an acceptable range ⇒ when we feel we start to think

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6
Q

Long term memory

A
  • Semantic

* Episodic

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7
Q

Explicit

A

consciously accessible

we know we have

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8
Q

Implicit

A

Can the existence of the memory only be inferred from changes in behaviour or physiology?

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9
Q

Declarative

A

knowledge we can declare

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10
Q

non-declarative

A

-

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11
Q

Autobiographical

A

about ourselves

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12
Q

Semantic

A

general knowledge

memory for generic facts

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13
Q

Episodic

A

episode in our history

memory for specific episodes in life

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14
Q

Short versus long term memory

A

Working: temporary, things we are working on
Episodic: can also be temporary, but can be revisted, not recalled as an episode, brain has to reconstruct episode
Semantic: stored in multiple locations depending on how often they are needed

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15
Q

Short versus long term memory

A 
Definitions vary and have changed over time
Defined by:
•Duration
•Function
•Underlying mechanism
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16
Q

Short versus long term memory

A

Working - short
Episodic - long
Semantic - long

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17
Q

Working Memory

A

Duration: seconds/minutes
Stored In: frontal cortex/TP
Represented As: sounds/meanings
Implemented As: neural activity

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18
Q

LTM

A

Duration: days/years
Stored In: hippocampus (⇒cortex)
Represented As: meanings
Implemented As: synaptic strengths

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19
Q

Basic Idea

A

event first buffered in WM, in prefrontal cortex
then replayed to hippocampus, involved in storing event in episodic memory
SM Processing - WM (PFC) - LTM (Hippocampus)

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20
Q

Baddeley’s model of working memory

A

WM refers to brain system that provides temporary storage + manipulation of info necessary for complex cognitive tasks - language comprehension, learning + reasoning

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21
Q

Baddeley’s model of working memory

A

i) central executive – controls attention, determines input we acquire - not needed, it disappears
ii) visuospatial sketch pad, manipulates visual representation
iii) the phonological loop: verbal representation
episodic buffer: creates temporary memory - sent to hippocampus if needed

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22
Q

Anders Ericsson and Walter Kintsch

A

view WM as component of long term memory

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23
Q

Miller (1956)

A

memory span of young adults around seven elements, regardless whether the elements were digits, letters, words

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24
Q

Chunking

A

span does depend on the category of chunks used (span around seven for digits, around six for letters + around five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category

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25
Q

Working memory

A

involve 2 processes with diff neuroanatomical locations in frontal + parietal lobes.
selection operation retrieves most relevant item
updating operation changes focus of attention made

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26
Q

attentional focus

A

Updating attentional focus involve transient activation in caudal superior frontal sulcus + posterior parietal cortex increasing demands on selection selectively changes activation in the rostral superior frontal sulcus + posterior cingulate/precuneus.)

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27
Q

WORKING MEMORY (simplistic)

A

Even the concept of the number “2” (two) requires a long term memory. Concepts of “Larger than” and “smaller than” are relative, and are easier to define, but the symbolic meaning of 2 requires a rule. Also the meaning of 3 requires a symbolic meaning that places it as one unit greater than two units.

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28
Q

Working Memory

A

Involves frontal cortex + temporoparietal junction

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29
Q

Hippocampus

A

required to form new LTM
anterograde amnesia: damaged hippocampus, couldn’t store new episodes, severe loss of ability to form new episodic and semantic memory
integrates similar memories in WM
retrograde amnesia: forget episodes shortly before surgery

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30
Q

Hippocampus

A

determines whether experience important enough to put into LTM
remembers associations amongst context
features activate certain neurons in gyrus that distinguishes
gyrus: discriminates what’s happening now + what happened before - sent to CA3

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31
Q

Hippocampus

A

runs loop to cortex which strengthen memory of new cortex

when things are similar - we can modify knowledge

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32
Q

Hippocampus

A

Damage to hippocampus can eliminate LTM, but leave working memory intact
creates new memories, which are progressively consolidated into more permanent storage in cortex

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33
Q

Hippocampus

A

memories are stored in associations betw representations originating from different SM modalities in CA3
doesn’t store object + event representations
stores associations betw representations held elsewhere in cortex

34
Q

Episodic Memory

A

must be tied to specific spatiotemporal contexts
in most/all mammals, used to represent spatial structure of local environment
environment representation stable over movements of animal
place cells fire when animal in particular place

35
Q

Episodic Memory + Hippocampus

A

Animals store knowledge of differ spatial environs they encounter in hippocampal region
Diff environs stored as diff spatial contexts - probably stored in the parahippocampal cortex

36
Q

Episodic Memory + Hippocampus

A

activity of place cells depend partly on perception + on active spatial context (Evidence from remapping of place cells when an animal moves to a new environment.)
•Episodic memories involve associations betw objects, actions + spatial contexts. (temporal contexts too

37
Q

parahippocampal cortex

A

part of medial temporal cortex, adjacent to the hippocampus

38
Q

Tulving

A

episodes are organized into sequences

Additional levels divide episodes into sequences

39
Q

evidence in rats

A

sequences of hippocampal cell activity which occur during waking experience tend to be replayed during sleep (at much faster speed)
sequences of nonspatial stimuli also stored in hippocampus

40
Q

evidence in humans

A

hippocampal activity during sequence encoding correlates with later retrieval success

41
Q

Prefrontal Cortex

A

involved in process of encoding episodic memory
stimuli processed semantically subsequently better recalled
Semantic processing correlated with left PFC activity during encoding correlates with retrieval success

42
Q

Encoding and recall of episodic memories

A

processes are mainly cortical

PFC/working memory is heavily involved

43
Q

Encoding of episodic memories

A

Jensen and Lisman, 1996; Baddeley, 2000 model: episodic memories first buffered in WM before being replayed to hippocampus.

44
Q

Encoding of episodic memories

A

Synapses in hippocampus strengthened by LTP - only occurs betw cells active within 100ms of one another Episodes often take tens of seconds to be experienced. So there must be a buffering mechanism.

45
Q

LTM representations of objects

A

need to maintain representations of objects in LTM
have memories of many individuals: people, pets, cars
important difference betw categorizing an individual (‘it’s a dog!’) + recognizing it (‘it’s my dog Fido!’).

46
Q

LTM representations of objects

A

individuals are stored in LTM in the perirhinal cortex

Perirhinal cortex involved in encoding + identification of familiar objects

47
Q

Episodic

A

event is experienced as SM sequence
stored in WM as planned SM sequence
to store event in episodic memory, planned sequence replayed to hippocampus
hippocampus also stores event as sequence

48
Q

Episodic

A

when retrieved, sequence is replayed from hippocampus + sequence plan is recreated in PFC, similar to plan created when event was experienced

49
Q

Recall of episodic memories

A

Cue creation: creation of a memory cue
Retrieval: presentation of cue to hippocampus
Post-retrieval: monitoring of hippocampus’ response

50
Q

Cue creation

A

PFC involved in the creation of memory cues.
Gershberg and Shimamura (1995): frontal patients generally worse at recall tasks than recognition tasks
Buckner et al. (1998): activity in PFC during recall correlates with retrieval effort rather than retrieval success

51
Q

Cue creation

A

Memory cues originally created in PFC-based WM + communicated to hippocampus
echoes story about role of WM in episodic memory
creation

52
Q

model of retrieval as rehearsal

A

retrieving a memory involves ‘reliving it’

hippocampus reactivates SM representations: Hippocampus projects to wide range of SM areas

53
Q

model of retrieval as rehearsal

A

Damasio (1994): hippocampus is convergence zone
Burgess et al. (2000) fMRI study on humans: recall activates
parietal cortex (holding allocentric SM representations)
Ji and Wilson (2007) study on rats: fast replay of hippocampal place cell sequences during sleep coincided with replay of sequences of cells in visual cortex

54
Q

The retrieval phase

A

retrieval operation is mainly control operation, which activates certain interfaces + deactivates others.
must open a connection from PFC to hippocampus, to communicate cue to hippocampus

55
Q

The retrieval phase

A

retrieval operation must also establish a special retrieval mode, in which sensory cortices receive input from hippocampus rather than from world

56
Q

The retrieval phase

A

Several ERP studies find short burst of activity in left parietal cortex occurring early in recall tasks

57
Q

Summary

A

event is experienced as a SM sequence
stored in WM (in PFC) as planned SM sequence
planned sequence is replayed to hippocampus

58
Q

Summary

A

hippocampus also stores event as a sequence
event is retrieved, sequence is replayed from hippocampus + sequence plan is recreated in PFC, similar to plan created when event was experienced

59
Q

Mere exposure to info does not guarantee a memory

A

Mere repeated exposure to info not enough to guarantee memory
repetition of either verbal or visual info isn’t enough to ensure it’s being remembered

60
Q

Memory is better for info that relates to prior knowledge

A

Only people going in the background info ahead of time remembered paragraph well
•With prep, students minds are better able to encode info presented in lecture

61
Q

Deeper processing at encoding improves recognition later

A
  • Deeper processing effect: preprocessing at encoding of new info improve ability to remember info later
  • People remember words better if they’re forced to think about the Semantic content of words rather than simply asked to memorize them without efforts
  • Brain areas activity during image condition particularly high left frontal cortex + left hippocampus
  • Brains more active during the image trials
62
Q

Memory retrieval is better when study and test conditions much

A

Transfer appropriate processing affect: retrieval more likely to be successful if cues available at recall similar to those available at encoding
involves physical context in which memory stored + retrieved

63
Q

More cues mean better recall

A

Free recall: open ended question + supply answer from memory
Cued recall: given prompt/clue to correct answer
Recognition: pick out answer from list of possible options
Free recall harder than cued recall, harder than recognition
Free recall provides no explicit cues
Cued recall provides at least some cues
Recognition, entire item is provided

64
Q

Forgetting

A

Directed forgetting: info is forgotten on-demand
Intentional forgetting extend to autobiographical events: Memory suppression in which individuals forget highly dramatic and unpleasant events

65
Q

Interference

A

memories overlap in content, strength of either/both memories may be reduced
Proactive interference: old info can disrupt new learning
Retroactive interference: recently acquired info interferes with old memory

66
Q

Memory misattribution

A

Remember info but mistakenly associated with incorrect source
Source amnesia: we remember info, but cannot remember source at all
Cryptonisia: mistakenly thinks thoughts are novel when actually remembering info learned somewhere else

67
Q

False memory

A

Memories of events that never actually happened
Tend to occur when ppl prompted to imagine missing details
•Later mistakenly remember details as truth: form of memory misattribution
more that ppl imagine event, more they’re likely to subsequently believe it really happened
•Eyewitness memory is prone to error

68
Q

Memory consolidation and reconsolidation

A

Consolidation Period: Time window during which new memories vulnerable + easily lost

69
Q

Memory consolidation and reconsolidation

A

ECT: Used for people with severe depression
•Old memories can be disrupted if recall just before administration of drugs that block formation/maintenance of synaptic connections
Each time an old memory is recalled to reactivated, it may become vulnerable again + need to be reconsolidated

70
Q

cerebral cortex and semantic memory

A

Sensory cortex: cortical areas that specialize in a kind of sensory info
Association cortex: other cortical areas, involved in associating info within + across modalities
Cerebral cortex primary storage site for many kinds of semantic info
Agnosia: relatively selective disruption of ability to process particular kind of semantic info when there’s cortical damage

71
Q

cerebral cortex and semantic memory

A

Auditory agnosia for speech: can hear sounds an echo them but unable to understand meaning
Associative visual agnosia: difficulty recognizing + naming objects even though they can see them

72
Q

cerebral cortex and semantic memory

A
  • Some neurons respond to pictures of particular categories of objects
  • Some neurons respond to many pictures, others respond to none
  • Individual neurons in various areas of the cortex + frontal and Temporal lobe show surprising selectivity
  • We have networks of neurons that respond primarily to info representing simple, familiar categories
73
Q

hippocampus and cortex interact during memory consolidation

A

•Ribot gradient: retrograde memory loss for events that occurred shortly before injury, then for events that occurred in the distant past
•Bilateral medial Temporal lobe damage show some retrograde + anterograde amnesia
•Standard consolidation theory: hippocampus + related medial temporal lobe structures required for the initial storage + retrieval of an episodic memory but contribution diminishes overtime until cortex is capable of retrieving memory without hippocampal help
Initially all components linked together via hippocampus into unified episodic memory

74
Q

hippocampus and cortex interact during memory consolidation

A

Over time components form direct connections + no longer need hippocampal mediation
Multiple memory trace theory: episodic memories encoded by an ensemble of hippocampal + cortical networks and cortical networks never become fully independent of hippocampal networks
Individuals might be able to rehearse a piece of autobiographical info so many times that it becomes a semantic memory

75
Q

hippocampus and cortex interact during memory consolidation

A

Hippocampus gradually decrease as age of semantic memory increases + remains low during recall of memories from 13 to 30 years ago
Other brain areas including cortical areas in frontal lobe, Temporal lobe, parietal lobe showed higher activity for old than for new memories

76
Q

frontal cortex and memory storage and retrieval

A

Frontal cortex may help determine what info we store + don’t store
Left frontal lobe more active during incidental encoding of subsequently remembered info
•Other areas of PFC may suppress hippocampal activity, inhibiting storage + retrieval of unwanted memories
•Several areas + PFC more active during forget trials than during the remember trials

77
Q

frontal cortex and memory storage and retrieval

A

contextual info to event memory, allowing us to form episodic memories that encode what happened + where + when

78
Q

Subcortical structures involved and episodic and semantic memory

A

Basal forebrain – collection of structures at base of forebrain
Nucleus basalis + medial septal nuclei produce neuromodulator acetylcholine + distributed throughout brain
Diencephalon: area near core of the brain, just about brainstem that includes Thalamus, hypothalamus + mammillary bodies

79
Q

Subcortical structures involved and episodic and semantic memory

A

Thalamus release info from sensory receptors to appropriate areas of sensory cortex
Hypothalamus plays important role in regulating involuntary functions (heartbeat, appetite, temperature control, wake sleep cycle)
Fornix: parts of basal forebrain + diencephalon connect with hippocampus via arch like fiber bundle

80
Q

basal forebrain may help determine what the hippocampus stores

A

medial septum + basal forebrain, sends acetylcholine + GABA to hippocampus where they affect activity + synaptic plasticity of hippocampal neurons
projections determine whether + when hippocampus will process + store info
Basal forebrain damage: hippocampus can’t work effectively without neuromodulation from basal forebrain telling it when to store new info
Confabulation: individuals with basal forebrain damage will respond with highly detailed but false memories

81
Q

Diencephalon may help guide consolidation

A

Korsakoff’s disease: condition caused by deficiency of thiamine that sometimes accompanies chronic alcohol abuse
damage to areas of diencephalon
Develop anterograde amnesia
Diencephalic structures help mediate interaction betw frontal cortex + hippocampus during memory storage + consolidation, so damage disrupts this interaction
•Many structures – hippocampus, cortex, Diencephalon + basal forebrain – must all be working well + together for episodic + semantic memory to function properly

PSY260 (14 decks)

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