PSY260 - 11. Observation Learning Flashcards
Why is language special?
we learn details of languages + multiple languages
Imitation
modify behaviour through seeing other people perform it well
see yourself perform it well/imagine doing it well
Emulation
not necessarily reproducing same sounds, but same result - rock bands
Contagion
reacting similarly to emotions of conspecifics
crying, laughing - share emotional context
Observational conditioning
learning an emotional response by observing it in others
Stimulus enhancement
producing a similar response by directing attention to the stimulus
Is language acquisition a specific type of learning, and is it unique to human beings?
don’t know what ways animals are communicating with one another
differences in that communication with language
believed it’s a human trait
Definition of language
way humans communicate
Purpose of language
to communicate, express feelings + ideas
Methods of communication
can communicate with body language + facial expressions
verbal expression
How does language relate to learning?
Actions required for performance can be observed
Observation leads to motor movements + somatic responses
Responses trigger emotional reactions, somatic response in observer
How does language relate to learning?
Emotional reactions directed motor actions
Actions are evaluated based on success
Symbolic representation of the learning process: symbolic type of communication - lower risk - learn without going into situation
MIRROR NEURONS
Neurons that activate both during execution of action + during observation same action made by another indiv
neurons in premotor cortex recorded during monkey observation
reaching + grasping, + experimenter reaching + putting object back both activated the mirror neuron
MIRROR NEURONS
Subcategories: neurons activate when listening to action sounds, and/or when observing communicative gestures made by others respectively.
mirror neurons - recent
Frequency Graph
fires frequently when researcher/monkey reaches for object
ORIGINS: 1. Evolution
mirror neurons might be precursors of neural systems concerned with language, or a gestural origin of language
speech risen from need to communicate with gestures
ORIGINS: 2. Functional
mirror neurons help to common code, parity, betw observer + actor (sender + receiver of a message) [motor theory of speech - phonetic gestures rather than speech sounds]
speech as a surrogate for phonetic gesture
phonemes are small gestures of speech
Cortical Speech Areas - Brocha’s Area
-controls motor output
lights up when speech is not required
Cortical Speech Areas - Werniche Area
anatomically, mirror cells located in areas linked to speech production
Mirror Neurons
monkey has learned to imitate
mirror neuron is switched on, same neuron activates when monkey does action
Facial Expression
pay attention to facial expression + mirror cells respond strongly to different types of expression
correlation between autism + impairment of activation of this area
Points of View
From hunter’s view, both scenes have same perspective
From learner’s perspective, scenes moving in opposite directions
allows us to manipulate this observation
generalization exercise - how to capture prey
not a discrimination exercise - doesn’t matter on details
Song learning in birds
oral observations
different strategies in learning
sparrow - 2 years to learn: sensitive periods where they listen
sounds help develop birds sensory abilities, less models to drive sensory development, produces subsong - practice its own sound
then modifies song to sound like others to communicate
Songbirds
program for producing diff sounds
image of sound retained in the brain + performance is compared to this
important in fine tuning sound
discriminates its own sound production + a neighbour
starts to modify production based on neighbouring birds
sound becomes fine tuned to mimic neighbours sound to attract mate
Songbirds
similar organization of the brain
dopaminergic
motor program drives the neurons that produces sounds
feedback system that tells bird how well it’s doing
Mimi Ted Talk
learn skill through trial + error
language is learned through imitation
listen + memorize adult songs - practice song
starts with babbling - variable sounds
starts breaking it into chunks - starts to master skill
song system - motor pathway + cortical basal ganglia circuit
Mimi Ted Talk
circuit specialized for singing - song learning + plasticity
damaged while learning - learning stops - cant manipulate longer
adult damage - can’t change song
cells have characteristic pattern of activity
singing by himself - more variability in activity
Mimi Ted Talk
neuron never bursts singing to female
neuron firing changes during alternation of social contexts
lots of variability in pitch, singing to female - cleans up act
activity variable = song variable
lesioned - sings as if singing to female all the time
active circuit that produces variability on purpose
brain can turn off variability depending on context - need to perform accurately
Consonants
we discriminate amongst phonemes + categorize sounds
find that new sounds are not readily recognized by brain + get categorized into one of known sounds
Phoneme Classification
categorize sounds into meaningful sequences
inhibit responses to sounds that have no meaning
Formants
common english phonemes
slight changes in frequency
Auditory Discrimination and Language Learning Impairement
discriminates between first 20 milliseconds
errors - unable to quickly categorize one phoneme to another
Auditory Discrimination and Language Learning Impairement
can train children computer generated sounds
sound sweeps up or sweeps down
early on had difficulties but with practice mastered discrimination
brain categorizes sounds
phonemes have multiple frequencies
focusing on certain frequencies
Development of episodic and semantic memory
Elicited imitation: infants shown in action + tested for ability to mimic action later
Imitation important way youngsters learn about world
Episodic memory develop more slowly
Development of episodic and semantic memory
Capacity to encode and verbally express semantic info increase with age across childhood
hippocampus + prefrontal cortex, critical for encoding and recall of episodic memories immature at birth + continue to develop during the first few years of life
Development of episodic and semantic memory
Young children do not show evidence of cognitive self
Some argue very young children can form episodic memories but cannot verbally express them
Language learning
language learning has sensitive period ends at about 12/earlier
Lack of social interactions during development greatly reduce opportunities to observe + imitate
Language learning
Children can learn second language more easily + approximate native accent more closely than adults
Infants younger than 6-8 months can distinguish all sounds even when distinction does not exist in native language
Language learning
acquiring language have window of opportunity to learn to distinguish language sounds; after, Learning possible, but much less effective
In children, dominant process is social imitation: children learn to make speech around them
Language learning
adults dominant process + semantic memory – adopting explicit strategies such as memorization of new vocabulary
Pruning of synapses
begins with surplus of synopsis
Creation of new synapsis - synaptogenesis begins 5 months after conception
40,000 synopsis being created per second
occurs at different rates in different brain areas
Pruning of synapses
prefrontal cortex high rates of synaptogenesis continue until about 6
seldom used may be weakened + may die away
up to 42% of all synapses in cortex may be pruned during childhood + adolescence
Pruning of synapses
occur mostly on spines, tiny protrusions from dendrites
If spines contacted by another neuron, synopsis can be formed + strengthened, unneeded spines disappear to be replaced
Pruning of synapses
overall # of spines on dendrite remains approximately constant; experience + learning determine which individual spines survive
adulthood to old age: Localized neuron and synapse loss
Loss of neurons in prefrontal cortex, area importance of working memory - declines with age Neurons lost in cerebellum # of spines in prefrontal neurons decreases - 33% overall Hippocampus doesn’t show much age related neuron loss
Early overproduction of neurons
When neuron is deprived of neurotrophic factors, genes become active that cause the neuron to die
Apoptosis: natural cell death
Early overproduction of neurons
During childhood, apoptosis, prune as many as one third of all neurons produced prenatally
Brain starts off with plenty of resources + experience determines which of those resources are critical and which not so necessary
