Psy111 Chapter 2 Flashcards
Biological Psychology/Behavioral Neuroscience
Focus: biological parts of psychological processes, behavior and learning
Nervous System
Extensive network of specialized cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body
Neuron
Basic cell that makes up nervous system, receives and send messages within system
Dendrites
Branchlike structures of neuron that receive messages from other neurons
Soma
Cell body of neuron, responsible for maintaining life of cell
Axon
Tubelike structure
- carries neural messages from cell body to axon terminals for communication with other cells
Glial Cells
- Provide support for neurons to grow
- deliver nutrients to neurons
- produce myelin to coat axons
- clean up waste of dead neurons
- influence information processing
- during prenatal development: influence generation of new neurons
- specific types have stem cell-like properties
Two types of glial cells produce myelin
- Oligodendrocytes
- Schwann cells
Myelin
- Fatty substance produced by certain glial cells
- Coats axon to insulate, protect, speed up neural impulse
Nerves
Bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through body
Axon Terminals
- Enlarged ends of axonal branches
- specialized for communication between cells
Diffusion
Process of molecules moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
Resting Potential
State of neuron when not firing a neural impulse - electrical charge at rest
Action Potential
- Release of neural impulse, consisting of a reversal of electrical charge within axon
All-or-none
Neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all
Neurotransmitters
Chemical found in synaptic vesicles that, when released, has an effect on next cell
Synaptic vesicle
Saclike structures found inside synaptic knob containing chemicals
Synapse (synaptic gap)
Microscopic fluid-filled space between axon terminal of one cell and dendrites/soma of next cell
Receptor sites
3D Proteins on surface of dendrites/certain cells of muscles + glands
- shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters
Excitatory Synapse
Synapse at which neurotransmitter causes receiving cell to fire
Inhibitory Synapse
Synapse at which neurotransmitter causes receiving cell to stop firing
Antagonist
Chemical substances that block/reduce a cell’s response to action of other chemicals/neurotransmitters
Agonist
Chemical substances that mimic/enhance effects of neurotransmitter on receptor sites of next cell, increasing/decreasing activity on next cell
Reuptake
Process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into synaptic vesicles
Enzymatic Degradation
Process by which structure of neurotransmitter is altered so it can no longer act on a receptor
Major Neurotransmitters
- Acetylcholine (arousal, attention, memory, controls muscle contractions)
- Dopamine (control of movement, sensation of pleasure)
- Glutamate (learning, memory formation, nervous system development, synaptic plasticity)
- GABA (sleep, inhibits movement)
- Endorphins (pain relief)
- Serotonin (mood, sleep, appetite)
- Norepinephrine (arousal, mood)
Electrical Charge of Neurons (resting potential)
- Balance between ions in and outside of the cell
- Membrane semipermeable (and inside negatively charged as compared to outside)
- change in electrical charge: action potential (cell fires)
Nervous System
- Central Nervous System
- Peripheral Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Brain & Spinal Cord
Peripheral Nervous System
Transmits information to and from central nervous system
- Autonomic Nervous System
- Somatic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System
Automatically regulates glands, internal organs, blood vessels, pupil dilation, digestion, blood pressure
Somatic Nervous System
Carries sensory information, controls movement of skeletal muscles
Sensory system (afferent)
Carries messages from senses to central nervous system
Motor System (efferent)
Carries messages from central nervous system to muscles and glands
Peripheral Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System (Parasympathetic division, sympathetic division)
& Somatic Nervous System (Sensory System (afferent), Motor System (efferent))
Brain
Interprets and stores information; sends orders to muscles, glands & organs
Spinal Cord
Pathway connecting brain & peripheral nervous system
Parasympathetic division
Maintains body functions under ordinary conditions; saves energy
Sympathetic Division
Prepares the body to react and expend energy in times of stress
Interneuron
- Found in center of spinal cord, receives info from afferent neurons and sends commands to muscles through efferent neurons
- make up the bulk of neurons in the brain
Neuroplasticity
Ability within brain to constantly change both structure and function of many cells in response to experience/trauma
Reflex Arc
Connection of afferent neurons to interneurons to efferent neurons, resulting in a reflex action
Neurogenesis
Formation of new neurons; occurs primarily during prenatal development, but may also occur at lesser levels in some brain areas during adulthood
Stem Cell
Found in all tissues of body; capable of becoming other cell types when those cells need to be replaced
Epigenetics
Interaction between genes & environmental factors that influence gene activity (e.g. diet, life experiences, physical surroundings)
Fight or flight
- Dilates pupils
- decreases salivation
- increases heart rate
- dilates bronchi
- decreases digestive functions of stomach, pancreas & intestines
- inhibits bladder contraction
Rest & Digest
- Constricts pupils & stimulates tear glands
- slows heart rate
- Increases salivation
- constricts bronchi
- increases digestive functions
- allows bladder contraction
Endocrine Glands
Secrete chemicals called hormones directly into bloodstream
Hormones
Chemicals released into bloodstream by endocrine glands
Pituitary Gland
Located in brain; secretes human growth hormone & influences all other hormone-secreting glands (also known as master gland)
Pineal Gland
Located near base of Cerebrum, secretes melatonin
Thyroid Gland
Found in neck, regulates metabolism
Pancreas
Controls level of sugar in blood
Gonads
Sex glands, secrete hormones that regulate sexual development, behavior and reproduction
Ovaries
Female gonads/sex glands
Testes
Male gonads/sex glands
Adrenal glands
- Located on top of each kidney
- secrete over 30 different hormones to deal with stress
- regulate salt intake
- provide secondary source of sex hormones affecting sexual changes occurring during adolescence
Oxytocin
Hormone released by posterior pituitary gland that is involved in reproductive and parental behaviors
General Adaption Syndrome
3 stages of body’s physiological reaction to stress, including alarm, resistance & exhaustion
Alarm
- When body first reacts to stressor, sympathetic nervous system gets activated
- adrenal glands release hormones that increase heart rate, blood pressure, supply of blood sugar -> burst of energy
- (May lead to fever, nausea, headache )
Resistance
- as stress continues, body settles into sympathetic division activity -> release stress hormones that help the body resist stressor
- early symptoms of alarm lessen, person may feel better
- Stage will continue until stressor ends
- (researchers found that one of hormones released unter stress, norepinephrine, seems to affect brain’s processing of pain, so person under stress may experience insensitivity to pain)
Exhaustion
- When body’s resources are gone, exhaustion occurs
- can lead to formation of stress-related diseases (high blood pressure, weakened immune system) or death if outside help is unavailable
- when stressor ends: parasympathetic division activates and body attempts to replenish its resources
Immune System
System of cells, organs & chemicals of body that responds to attacks from diseases, infections, injuries
Psychoneuroimmunology
The study of effects of psychological factors (stress, emotions, thoughts, behavior) on immune system
-> Researchers found that stress triggers same response in immune system that infection triggers
Coronary Heart Disease
Buildup of waxy substance called plaque in arteries of heart
Natural Killer (NK) Cell
Immune-system cell responsible for suppressing viruses and destroying tumor cells
Type 2 Diabetes
typically occurring in middle adulthood when body either becomes resistant to effects of insulin/can no longer secrete enough insulin to maintain normal glucose levels
Glands
Organs in body that secrete chemicals; some affect functioning of body but not behavior, others have widespread influence on body and behavior
Physiological Factors in Stress
- Body protects itself through allostasis, dynamically adapting/adjusting in response to stress
- involves activation of sympathetic nervous system, HPA axis, immune system etc
Lesioning
Insertion of a thin, insulated electrode into brain through which an electrical current is sent, destroying brain cells at the tip of the wire
Brain Stimulation
- less harmful, no damage to neurons
- causes neurons to react as if they had received message (electrical stimulation of brain/ESB)
- Temporarily disrupt/enhance normal functioning of specific brain areas through electrical stimulation & study resulting changes in behavior
Computed tomography (CT)
Brain-imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Recording of electrical activity of large groups or cortical neurons just below skull, most often using scalp electrodes
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
Used to evaluate individuals prior to brain surgery, explore various perceptual processes, detect potential of early dementia, explore development of cognitive processes in children
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Radioactive sugar injected into subject; computer compiles a color-coded image of activity of the brain
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
MRI- based; allows for functional examination of brain areas through changes in brain oxygenation
Looking Inside the Living Brain (methods for studying the structures and/or activity of the living brain)
🖊 Mapping Function
- EEG
- > PET
- > MRI/fMRI
🖊 Mapping Structure
- CT
- MRI
🖊Lesioning Studies
🖊Brain Stimulation Studies
🖊Older Methods
- Often relies on dissecting techniques after death
- unable to directly observe function
Medulla
- First large swelling at top of spinal cord
- lowest part of brain
- responsible for life-sustaining functions (breathing, swallowing, heart rate)
Pons
- Part of hindbrain that relays information between cerebellum and cortex
- plays part in sleep, dreaming, left-right body coordination, arousal
Hypothalamus
Part of forebrain that regulates amount of fear, thirst, sexual drive, aggression
Thalamus
Part of forebrain that relays information from sensory organs to cerebral cortex
Corpus callosum
Connects left and right hemispheres of the brain
Cerebral cortex
Controls complex thought processes
Cerebellum
Controls/coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movements
Reticular Formation(RF)
Responsible for general attention, alertness, arousal
Limbic System
Involved in learning, emotion, memory, motivation
Hippocampus
Responsible for formation of long-term declarative memories
Amygdala
Responsible for fear responses and memory of fear
Cortex
- Frontal Lobes, temporal lobes, parietal lobes, occipital lobes
- Outermost covering of brain
- responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input
Cerebral Hemispheres
Two sections of cortex on left and right sides of brain
Occipital Lobe
- Located at rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere
- containing primary visual centers of brain
Parietal Lobes
- located in lower back of brain
- containing centers for touch, temperature, body position
Somatosensory cortex
Responsible for sense of hearing and meaningful speech
Frontal Lobes
Responsible for higher mental processes, decision making, fluent speech
Motor cortex
Sends motor commands to muscles of somatic nervous system
Mirror neurons
Neurons that fire when animal/person performs an action and also when an animal/person observes that same action being performed by another
Association areas
Areas within each lobe of cortex for coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing
Broca’s aphasia
resulting from damage to Broca’s area, causing affected person to be unable to speak fluently, mispronounce words, speak haltingly
Broca’s area
Production of speech, allows person to speak smoothly and fluently
Wernicke’s area
Involved in understanding meaning of words
Wernicke’s aphasia
Condition arising from damage to Wernicke area, causing affected person to be unable to understand and produce meaningful language
Spatial Neglect
Most often produced by damage to parietal association areas of right hemisphere, resulting in inability to recognize objects or body parts in left visual field
Left Hemisphere
- Controls right hand
- spoken language
- written language
- mathematical calculations
- logical thought process
- analysis of detail
- reading
Right Hemisphere
- Controls left hand
- Nonverbal
- Visual-spatial perception
- Music and artistic processing
- Emotional thought and recognition
- Processing of the whole
- Pattern recognition
- Facial recognition
Cerebrum
Upper part of brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures that connect them
ADHD
- Developmental disorder
- in attention, impulsivity, hyperactivity
- more than one cause: environment, heredity, personality factors
Split Brain Research
- Corpus Callosum sometimes severed to reduce seizures
- Left Visual Field: right hemisphere
- Right Visual Field: left hemisphere
Temporal lobes
Responsible for sense of hearing and meaningful speech
Auditory area
Hearing
Motor area
Control of movement
Somatosensory Area
Touch and body position
Dopamine
Control of movement, pleasure
Acetylcholine
Arousal, attention, memory, muscle contraction
Endorphins
Pain relief
GABA
Sleep, inhibits movement
Norepinephrine
Arousal, mood
Glutamate
Learning, memory formation, nervous system development, synaptic plasticity
Serotonin
Mood, sleep, appetite
Brain roughly divided
Frontal lobe (Front) Temporal lobe (bottom/temples) Parietal lobe (top/back) Occipital lobe (back/bottom)
Brain illustration
Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal
Motor, somatosensory, Wernicke, visual, cerebellum, brain stem, auditory
Association areas
Responsible for coordination/interpretation of information; higher mental processing
(Broca’s and wernicke’s)
