PSY1022 WEEK 3 - DISC 1 Flashcards
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
There are many ways to gain knowledge, and some are better than others.
KNOWLEDGE VIA SUPERSTITION
Acquiring knowledge that is based on subjective feelings, interpreting random events as nonrandom events, or believing in magical events. For example “bad things happen in threes.”
KNOWLEDGE VIA INTUITION
When we have knowledge of something without being consciously aware of where the know edge came from.
- “I don’t know, it’s just a gut feeling” or “I don’t Some-times we intuit something based not on a “gut feeling” but on events we have observed. The problem is that the events may be misinterpreted and not representative of all events in that category.
- illusory correlation—the perception of a relationship that does not exist.
KNOWLEDGE VIA AUTHORITY
Accepting information from a figure in power. Sometimes this is a legitimate way to obtain knowledge and information
Especially relevant when young. Learning from parents, teachers, etc.
Becomes an issue when we believe celebrities.
- Depending on authority for information can have disadvantages. Legitimate authorities make mistakes in their own field, and experts often speak outside their area(s) of expertise. If people have accepted their claims, they are less likely to perform separate inquiries to verify that those claims are true.
KNOWLEDGE VIA TENACITY
Hearing a piece of information so often that you begin to believe it is true, and then, despite evidence to the contrary, you cling stubbornly to the belief.
- political campaigns, advertising.
The problem with gaining knowledge through tenacity is that we do not know whether the claims are true.
KNOWLEDGE VIA RATIONALISM (LOGIC)
Knowledge gained through logical reasoning
Coming to a logically sound conclusion. Rational ideas are often presented in the
form of a syllogism. Can be based on false assumptions, and therefore not accurate.
- Logic cannot predict things that do not make logical sense. In addition, logic does not contribute additional information. It merely reworks what is already known.
- Milgram
KNOWLEDGE VIA EMPIRICISM
Knowledge gained through objective observations of organisms and events in the real world.
- Aristotle rather than Plato
But can just lead to a collection of facts.
KNOWLEDGE VIA SCIENCE
Knowledge gained through a combination of empirical methods and logical reasoning.
By merging rationalism and empiricism, we have the advantage of using a logical argument based on observation. We may find that our hypothesis is not supported, and thus we have to reevaluate our position. On the other hand, our observations may support the hypothesis being tested
- the only acceptable way for researchers and scientists to gain knowledge.
HYPOTHESIS
A prediction regarding the outcome of a study involving the potential relationship between at least two variables.
eg Increasing portion size will cause an increase in the amount of food eaten.
- A testable hypothesis is one for which all of the variables, events, and individuals are real, and can be defined and observed.
- A refutable hypothesis is one that can be demonstrated to be false. That is, it is possible for the outcome to be different from the prediction.
- Must make a positive statement (“there is….”)
- The way in which the hypothesis is stated suggests a researcher already know the answer to the question, but do not know what he or she will find until the study is completed-phrasing the hypothesis in this way makes it testable.
THEORY
An organized system of assumptions and principles that attempts to explain certain
phenomena and how they are related.
Hypothesis is on the outcome of a single study.
Multiple studies and hypothesis can lead to a theory.
Must be well supported by evidence and are subject to constant scrutiny and occasional revision.
SKEPTIC
A person who questions the validity,
authenticity, or truth of something purporting to be factual.
SYSTEMATIC EMPIRICISM
Making observations in a systematic manner to test hypotheses and refute or develop a theory.
- simply observing a series of events does not lead to scientific knowledge. The observations must be made in a systematic manner to test a hypothesis and refute or develop a theory.
PUBLICALY VERIFIABLE KNOWLEDGE
Presenting research to the public so that it can be observed, replicated, criticized, and tested.
- peer-reviewed journals, etc.
EMPIRICALLY SOLVABLE PROBLEMS
Questions that are potentially answerable by means of currently available research techniques.
- cannot test life after death, etc.
PRINCIPAL OF FALSIFIABILITY
The idea that a scientific theory must be stated in such a way that it is possible to refute or disconfirm it.
- what will happen and what will not happen.
PSEUDOSCIENCE
Claims that appear to be scientific but that actually violate the criteria of science.
- eg. can’t test ESP in a lab because the conditions are “not right”
BASIC RESEARCH
The study of psychological issues to seek knowledge for its own sake.
- often universities and labs
- it is driven purely by curiosity and a desire to expand our knowledge. This type of research tends not to be directly applicable to the real world in a direct way, but enhances our understanding of the world around us
- includes evaluation
APPLIED RESEARCH
The study of of psychological issues that
have practical significance and potential solutions.
- often private businesses or the government.
- This is the type of research that solves a problem.
GOALS OF SCIENCE
Scientific research has three basic goals:
(1) to describe behavior
(2) to predict behavior
(3) to explain behavior.
DESCRIPTION
Carefully observing behavior in order to describe it.
PREDICTION
Identifying the factors that indicate when an
event or events will occur.
- we discover that when one variable is at a certain level, a second variable might also be present.
EXPLAINATION
Identifying the causes that determine when
causes that determine when and why a behavior occurs and why a behavior occurs.
When we try to identify the best explanation for a behavior, we must systematically eliminate any alternative explanations. To eliminate alternative explanations, we must impose control over the research situation.
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
The process of planning and conducting a research study involves using the scientific method to address a specific question. During this process, the researcher moves from a general idea to actual data collection and interpretation of the results.
RESEARCH STEPS
1 - Find a research idea: select a topic and search the literature to find an unanswered question.
2 - Form a hypothesis and a prediction. Make a specific prediction about what will happen in the research study.
3 - Determine how you will define and measure your variables.
4 - Identify and select the participants or subjects for the study.
5 - Select a research strategy.
6 - Select a research design.
7 - Conduct the study.
8 - Evaluate the data.
9 - Report the results.
10 - Refine or reformulate your research idea.
SUBJECTS VS PARTICIPANTS
Subjects = nonhuman Participants = human
LITERATURE REVIEW
Involves searching the published studies on a topic to ensure that you have a grasp of all the research that has been conducted in that area that might be relevant to your intended study.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
Cause
- eg .dirty wheel bearings
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Effect
- eg. speed
SINGLE BLIND STUDY
An experimental procedure in which either the experimenters or the subjects are blind to the manipulation being made.
PLACEBO EFFECT
Can occur when the control group thinks they’re being treated even when they’re not.
DOUBLE BLIND STUDY
An experimental procedure in which neither the experimenter nor the subject know the condition to which each subject has been assigned; both parties are blind to the manipulation.
-reduces experimenter bias.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH / SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Logically stepped process used for investigating and acquiring or expanding our understanding
- assumption that behavior is governed by rules and regularities
TRADITION
Knowledge and understanding that is believed to be true because it has been traditionally accepted. No one has stopped to say ‘Hey, wait a minute. That’s not right.’
- Depending on tradition for information can have disadvantages. It rarely occurs to most people to seek a different understanding of something that they believe that they “know” to be true. This means that people rarely bother to find out if the beliefs they have, for example, about other people are actually true.
PERSONAL EXPERIENCE
Information or understanding derived from experiencing something firsthand. There doesn’t seem to be a problem with this at first, but it is actually incredibly flawed because experience is subjective and not reproducible.
DEONTOLOGICAL
Deontological (duty-based) ethics are concerned with what people do, not with the consequences of their actions.
Under this form of ethics you can’t justify an action by showing that it produced good consequences, which is why it’s sometimes called ‘non-Consequentialist’.
Someone who follows Duty-based ethics should do the right thing, even if that produces more harm (or less good) than doing the wrong thing.
