Problem solving and creativity Flashcards
Insight
Sudden realization of a problem’s solution.
Restructuring
The process of changing a problem’s representation. According to the Gestalt psychologists, restructuring is the key mechanism of problem solving.
Problem
A situation in which there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal state and it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle.
Analytically based problems
Problem that is solved by a process of systematic analysis, often using techniques based on past experience.
Mental set
A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a person’s experience or what has worked in the past.
Candle problem
A problem, first described by Duncker, in which a person is given a number of objects and is given the task of mounting a candle on a wall so it can burn without dripping wax on the floor. This problem was used to study functional fixedness.
Two-string problem
A problem first described by Maier in which a person is given the task of attaching two strings together that are too far apart to be reached at the same time. This task was devised to illustrate the operation of functional fixedness.
Functional fixedness
An effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object’s function inhibit the person’s ability to use the object for a different function. See also Fixation (in problem solving).
Water jug problem
A problem, first described by Luchins, that illustrates how mental set can influence the strategies that people use to solve a problem.
Tower of Hanoi problem
A problem involving moving discs from one set of pegs to another. It has been used to illustrate the process involved in means–end analysis.
Goal set
In problem solving, the condition that occurs when a problem has been solved.
Operators
In problem solving, permissible moves that can be made toward a problem’s solution.
Initial state
In problem solving, the conditions at the beginning of a problem.
Problem space
The initial state, goal state, and all the possible intermediate states for a particular problem.
intermediate state
In problem solving, the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states.
Means–end analysis
A problem-solving strategy that seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. This is achieved by creating subgoals, intermediate states that are closer to the goal.
Subgoals
In the means–end analysis approach to problem solving, intermediate states that move the process of solution closer to the goal.
Analogical problem solving
The use of analogies as an aid to solving problems. Typically, a solution to one problem, the source problem, is presented that is analogous to the solution to another problem, the target problem.
Think-aloud protocol
A procedure in which subjects are asked to say out loud what they are thinking while doing a problem. This procedure is used to help determine people’s thought processes as they are solving a problem.
Analogical transfer
Transferring experience in solving one problem to the solution of another, similar problem.
Mutilated checkerboard problem
A problem that has been used to study how the statement of a problem influences a person’s ability to reach a solution.
Analogy
Making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things.
Target problem
A problem to be solved. In analogical problem solving, solution of this problem can become easier when the problem-solver is exposed to an analogous source problem or story. See also Source problem.
Source problem
A problem or story that is analogous to the target problem and which therefore provides information that can lead to a solution to the target problem. See also Analogical problem solving; Target problem.
Analogical encoding
A technique in which people compare two problems that illustrate a principle. This technique is designed to help people discover similar structural features of cases or problems.
Radiation problem
A problem posed by Duncker that involves finding a way to destroy a tumor by radiation without damaging other organs in the body. This problem has been widely used to study the role of analogy in problem solving.
Trade-off strategy
A negotiating strategy in which one person says to another, “I’ll give you A, if you’ll give me B.”
Contingency strategy
A negotiating strategy in which a person gets what he or she wants if something else happens.
Analogical paradox
People find it difficult to apply analogies in laboratory settings, but routinely use them in real-world settings.
Divergent thinking
Thinking that is open-ended, involving a large number of potential solutions.
Experts
Person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, has become acknowledged as being extremely skilled or knowledgeable in that field.
In vivo problem-solving research
Observing people to determine how they solve problems in real-world situations. This technique has been used to study the use of analogy in a number of different settings, including laboratory meetings of a university research group and design brainstorming sessions in an industrial research and development department.
Group brainstorming
When people in a problem-solving group are encouraged to express whatever ideas come to mind, without censorship.
Creative cognition
A technique developed by Finke to train people to think creatively.
Preinventive forms
Objects created in Finke’s “creative cognition” experiment that precede the creation of a finished creative product.
Nine-dot problem
A problem involving nine dots, arranged in a square pattern, in which the task is to draw four straight lines that pass through all nine dots without lifting the pen from the paper or retracing a line.
Compound remote-associate problem
A problem in which three words are presented, and the task is to determine one word that when combined with each of these words forms a new word or a phrase.
Incubation
The phenomenon of getting ideas after taking a “time-out” from working on a problem.
electroencephalogram (EEG)
An electrical response recorded from the scalp using disc electrodes.
Transcranial direct current stimulation
A procedure for stimulating the brain in which two electrodes, which are connected to a battery-powered device that delivers direct current, are placed on a person’s head.
Alternate uses task
A task used to assess creativity, in which the person’s task is to think unusual uses for an object. Also called the unusual uses task.
Daydreaming
Mind wandering
Volitional daydreaming
The act of consciously choosing to disengage from external tasks in order to pursue an internal stream of thought that might have positive outcomes.
Minfulness
Paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally, to the unfolding of experience moment to moment.
executive control network (ECN)
A brain network that is involved in directing attention as a person is carrying out tasks.
Meditation
A number of different practices for controlling the mind. See Focused attention (FA) meditation; Open monitoring meditation.
Focused attention (FA) meditation
A type of meditation in which the basic procedure is to focus on one thing, like the in and out of your breath, and when your mind wanders, to bring your attention back to your breath.
Open monitoring (OM) meditation
A type of meditation that involves paying attention to whatever comes into the mind, and to follow this thought until something else comes along.
Imagination network
Kaufman and Gregoire’s (2015) name for the default mode network (DMN).
