problem solving

Question 1

what is a problem

Answer 1

obstacle between a present state and a goal, for which it is not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle

Question 2

wel defined vs ill defined problem

Answer 2

well defined = correct answer, certain procedures will lead to the solution eg math
ill define - path to solution is unclear, no one correct answer eg relationship issue, choosing a career

Question 3

gestalt approach to problem solving

Answer 3

representing a problen in the mind
restructuring - changes the problens representation in the mind and allows a solution to be found
eg kohlers circle problem

Question 4

kohler’s apes

Answer 4

observe how the animals solved problems
put apes in a latge cage
gave them implements that they oculd use to obtain the food that was placed in plain view
sat back and watched what they did
first tried to reach food with given toolss
then seemed to have “aha” moment = reached for other sticks instead
movements were goal-orientated, purposeful and deliberate = sudden insight

Question 5

metcalfe and wjebe experiment

Answer 5

insight - triangle problem (make a triangle of dots a different shape), chain problem (make chain links of 12 by fidling with 3)
these problem are used as only really insight works
(noninsight - algebra)
warmth judegements every 15 seconds - how close they hink they are to a solution

Question 6

metcalf and wiebe results

Answer 6

insight problems solved suddenly and spike at the end

noninsight problems solved gradually

Question 7

newell and simon information processing approach (move away from gestalt)

Answer 7

problem solving can be thought of as a search, as if you were navigating a maze
problem space
-inital state
-intermediate states
-goal state
operators - rules to specify which moves are allowed and which are not
eg tower of hanoi

Question 8

what heuristics can help with

Answer 8

when the problem space is too vast eg in chess (not gonna map out every single move)

Question 9

name some heuristics

Answer 9

hill - climbing strategy

means end analysis

Question 10

explain hill-climbing strategy

Answer 10

get closer to the goal each time
eg wont always work = if need to move further away from the goal
not always the best strategy

Question 11

explain means end analysis

Answer 11

can the current state be made more simpler to the goal state using available operators
leads to subroblems each with its own goal
gets around vastness problem

Question 12

what is functional fixedness

Answer 12

restricting the use of an object to its familiar functions
-candle problem = seeing boxes as containers inhibited using them as supports
two-string problem = function of pliers gets in the way of seeing them as a weight

Question 13

problem solving set or einstellung

Answer 13

situation influences approach to problem
is a heuristic
once have learnt problem one way struggle to see any other way - which might be a quicker solution for different questions
eg water jug problem
or want to keep problem solving solution within problem

Question 14

framing of a problem

Answer 14

acrobat and reverse acrobat problem
hung up on surface features of a problem. by changing the surface can change the difficulty
not just analyzing problem space, how a problem is stated will change its dificulty
say a big acrobat can only stand on a little one (reverse = this is tricky cause seems weird)
also mutilated-checkerboard

Question 15

mutilated checkerboard problem

Answer 15

conditions differed in how much info provided about the squares (worst to best conditions:)
blank
red/ black
red / black in words
bread / butter in words
easier to solve when information is provided that points them towards the correct representation of the problem

Question 16

can we use analogies to help solve problems effectively

Answer 16

using a solution to a smiliar problem guides solutions to new problems
eg solve russian marriage problem first (same concept as checkerboard but really obvious solution)
then try mutilated checkerboard and find it way easier
also dunkers radition problem (radiating a tumor gently but lots of rays at once - only got this solution when first done with evil dictator story)

Question 17

gick and hoyoak 3 steps in using analogies to solve problems

Answer 17

noticing relaionship
mapping correspondence between source and target
applying mapping

Question 18

how surface features can through off analogies

Answer 18

can inhibit people to find the correct mapping (eg fortress to tumour)
changed to lightbul problem
-high surface similarities aid analytical problem solving
making structural features more obvious aids analogical problem solving

Question 19

analytical encoding

Answer 19

comparing two cases that illustrate a principle

• effective way to gte participatns to pay attention to structural features that aid problem solving
• genter and goldin - when faced with a new problem, participants used strategy that they had compared in previous problems

Question 20

analogical paradox

Answer 20

participants in experiments focus on surface features
people in real world use struvtual features
basiclaly lab doesnt reflect real world very well here

Question 21

in vivo-problem solving research

Answer 21

people are observed to determine how they solve problems in the real world = naturalistic setting
bu time consuming, cannot isolate and control variables
=researchers use analogies often in lab meetings, board meetings etc to solve current problems
so analogies are useful

Question 22

experts and problem solving

Answer 22

experts solve problems in their field faster and with a higher success rate than beginners
why is the question

Question 23

why do experts do better at problem solving

Answer 23

use analogies better
(eg engineers heard using analogies every 5 mins)
possess more knowledge about their fields (eg in chess can chunk - have seen more before, difference in how memory is stored and encoded)
knowledge is organised to it can be accessed when needed to work on a problem (eg experts can find deep structural features whereas novices hung up on surface features, eg group physics problems novices group but what they look like, but experts group by what the structural components examine)

Question 24

more why experts better at solving problems

Answer 24

spend more time analysing
no better than novices when outside their field
experts = less likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems, and less likely to be able to explain their thought process
why young scientists often the most innovative

Question 25

how to measure / define creativity

Answer 25

innovative thinking
novel ideas
new connections between existing ideas

Question 26

prerequisites for exceptional creativity include

Answer 26

knowledge and skill in the domain
certain intellectual capacities and personality traits
motivated by pleasure of the worl
a conductive social, cultural and historical context
=googles 20 percent time (just work on something you find interesting, claim gmail came from it)

Question 27

wallas 1926 4 stages of a creative thought

Answer 27

preparation - info gathering
incubation - conscious breaj
illumination - insight emerges
verification - the details worked out to solve the problem

Question 28

is wallas’ 4 stages a good representation?

Answer 28

many people find incubation part of wallas’ theory to be appealing
we often have the experience of a solution popping into our heads for a problem that had been set aside
but not supported by literature

Question 29

incubation idea in the literature

Answer 29

word puzzles - require creativity
some given misleading clues (delay (incubation period) then allowed them to forget misleading clues)
but these studies are inconsistent and unreliable
time away from a problem may help through a number of different mechanisms (new info, new problem solving set)

Question 30

divergent vs cnvergent thinking

Answer 30

deivergent = open ended, large number of potential solutions
convergent = one corrct answer

Question 31

creative people tend to be what types of thinkers…

Answer 31

divergent

Question 32

creative people tend…

Answer 32

to have the ability to find new connections between ideas
a measure of divergent thinking
(remote associates task eg glasses - dark, sun, shot)

Question 33

creative people arent special

Answer 33

no special mental mechanisms needed to explain creativity
the ingredients of creativity are availale to all of us if we aquire expertise in the relevant domain
so we all have the capability to be creative

Question 34

creative cognition

Answer 34

technique to train people to think creatively
=preinventive forms = ideas that precede creation of finished creative product (ie make something that might be useful but doesnt matter if you dont know what)
then interpret your object based on category you were given
think this will let people be more creative and this will translate into work