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Exams > Principles of Reasoning Exam 1 > Flashcards

Principles of Reasoning Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

proposition

A

anything that is capable of being true or false (has true values)

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2
Q

is water=h2o a proposition?

A

yes

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3
Q

is dad! do the perfect case! a proposition?

A

no, it is an imperative statement (command or request)

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4
Q

is water=sodium chloride a proposition?

A

yes, it is a statement that can be either true or false

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5
Q

do the sentences below express the same proposition?
1. the snow will melt before the end of next week
2. the end of the week will come after the snow melts

A

-no, the first sentence implies the snow melting in relation to the end of the week; the second sentence implies the end of week in relation to the snow melting

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6
Q

connectives

A

link propositions to other propositions

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7
Q

examples of connectives

A

and, if, or, not, then, because, before, after,while, when, either

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8
Q

is this an example of a connective component:
the Milky Way is 100,000 light years across the universe, and that’s news to me

A

no, even though the word “and” is being used, the second part of the sentence is not a proposition, but an imperative sentence

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9
Q

is this a connective component:
if the sun disappeared right now, then the sky would go dark in 8 minutes

A

yes, the first part of the sentence is a hypothetical proposition which could be proven true or false, and the second statement is a proposition that can be proven true or false as well

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10
Q

is this a connective component:
the statement on this slide is not true

A

no, although it uses not, this is an example of the liar paradox, and it is not a proposition statement combined with another

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11
Q

other examples of propositions

A
  • baltimore is to the north of canada
  • batman wold beat superman in a fight
  • if my phone is working, then it is charged
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12
Q

argument

A

when at least one premise is put forward in a favor of a conclusion

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13
Q

conclusion indicators

A

therefore, thus, hence, consequently

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14
Q

premise indicators

A

since, because, given that, granted

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15
Q

deductive argument

A

aim to show that a conclusion is guaranteed if all the premises are true

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16
Q

valid argument

A

guarantees a true conclusion if the premises are all true

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17
Q

sound argument

A

valid+all true premises=sound

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18
Q

inductive argument

A

aim to show that the conclusion is probable given its premises

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19
Q

strong argument

A

-has a probable conclusion given all true premises

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20
Q

what is the premise:
since my phone is working, it must be charged

A

my phone is working

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21
Q

what is the conclusion:
batman would beat superman in a fight, and superman would easily beat joker in a fight. so batman would easily beat joker in a fight

A

batman would easily beat joker in a fight

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22
Q

independent premise

A

separate lines of evidence in favor of a conclusion

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23
Q

dependent premise

A

premises that work together to support the conclusion

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24
Q

subconclusion

A

a premise that supports a conclusion, and that conclusion itself is a premise for another conclusion

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25
Q

fallacies

A

bad arguments

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26
Q

subjectivist

A

I believe it, so it’s true

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27
Q

appeal to majority

A

everybody believes it, so it’s true

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28
Q

ad hominem

A

something’s wrong with you, so you’re wrong

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29
Q

appeal to authority

A

they’re an expert, so they’re right
(could be the wrong kind of authority or the authority might not represent the consensus position)

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30
Q

false alternative

A

failing to account for other possibilities

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31
Q

post hoc

A

A happened before B, so A caused B

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32
Q

hasty generalization

A

it happened once, so it happens all the time

33
Q

accident

A

it’s generally the case, so it’s definitely the case in this instance

34
Q

composition

A

the parts have a characteristic, so the whole thing has that characteristic
(part to whole)

35
Q

division

A

the whole thing has a characteristic, so the parts have that characteristic
(whole to part)

36
Q

begging the question

A

assuming the conclusion is true in the premises

37
Q

equivocation

A

changing the meaning of a term mid-argument

38
Q

appeal to ignorance

A

you can prove it isn’t true, so it is true

39
Q

diversion (red herring)

A

changing the subject

40
Q

straw man

A

misrepresenting an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack

41
Q

cognitive bias

A

psychological tendencies that lead to reasoning errors (not the same as fallacies)

42
Q

confirmation bias

A

tendency to more easily find evidence that supports our preconceptions, but not evidence against it

43
Q

halo effect

A

when you like someone, it is easier to notice their good qualities than their bad ones

44
Q

belief bias

A

mistaking an argument with a conclusion you like for a good
argument/mistaking an argument with a conclusion you don’t like for a bad argument

45
Q

belief bias example

A

I agree with the conclusion, that means it’s a good argument

46
Q

hindsight bias

A

judging events as predictable after they have already happened

47
Q

hindsight bias example

A

-i knew that was going to happen
-i should have known

48
Q

representative heuristic

A

judging events that something belongs to a group based on a stereotype

49
Q

representative heuristic example

A

thinking someone is a librarian because they look like one

50
Q

availability heuristic

A

judging how frequently events happen by how quickly examples come to mind

51
Q

availability heuristic example

A

ever since jaws came out, shark attacks have been up

52
Q

anchoring

A

judging a quantity based on a reference point

53
Q

anchoring example

A

those shoes were $350 before they went on sale, now they’re $250, that’s $100 cheaper

54
Q

cognitive dissonance

A

the uncomfortable feeling that results are from behaving out of step with your self-concept

55
Q

cognitive dissonance example

A

a frugal person might feel a negative emotion if they go on a shopping spree

56
Q

attribution bias

A

attributing your own behaviors to external factors and other people’s behavior to internal factors

57
Q

attribution bias example

A

I lied because I was in a tough situation, but you lied because you’re a bad person

58
Q

invalid argument

A

when it is possible for all the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false

59
Q

unsound argument

A

when it is either invalid or does not have all true premises

60
Q

what must a deductive argument be?

A

sound

61
Q

can a sound argument have some false premises?

A

no, because a sound argument must be valid and have all true premises

62
Q

can a valid argument have all true premises and a false conclusion?

A

no, because a valid argument guarantees a true conclusion

63
Q

can a sound argument have a false conclusion?

A

no, because a sound argument must be valid and have all true premises, and a valid argument guarantees a true conclusion

64
Q

can a cogent argument have all true premises and a false conclusion?

A

yes, because a cogent argument makes the conclusion probable, not certain, therefore it could be false

65
Q

can a valid argument have all false premises?

A

yes, because as long as the conclusion follows the premises, those premises could be true or false

66
Q

can an invalid argument have a true conclusion?

A

yes, because invalidity refers to the conclusion not following the premises, but the conclusion could happen to end up being true

67
Q

can an unsound argument have a true conclusion?

A

yes, because there could be one true premise, one false premise, but the conclusion just happens to be true

68
Q

cogent argument

A

strong+all true premises

69
Q

which are the fallacies of relevance?

A

subjectivist, appeal to majority, appeal to emotion, appeal to force, straw man, red herring

70
Q

which are the inductive fallacies?

A

appeal to ignorance, hasty generalization, post hoc

71
Q

which are the fallacies of presumption?

A

false alternatives

72
Q

which are the fallacies of ambiguity?

A

composition, equivocation

73
Q

fallacies of ambiguity

A

fallacies that involve unclear language or unclear concepts

74
Q

fallacies of presumption

A

fallacies that involve unwarranted assumptions

75
Q

inductive fallacies

A

fallacies that involve insufficient evidence

76
Q

fallacies of relevance

A

fallacies where the premises are irrelevant to the conclusion

77
Q

appeal to emotion

A

attempting to win an argument by manipulating emotions such as fear or pity

78
Q

appeal to force

A

in which someone tries to convince others to accept a conclusion by using threats, intimidation, etc.

Exams (13 decks)

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