Previous Exam 1 Flashcards
In tubular reabsorption renal tubules and WHAT are absorb 99% of filtered water & useful solutes
Collecting Ducts/tubule cells
Urine secreted during tubular secretion is composed of water & wAste material including 3
Excess electrolytes
Drugs
Hormones
Complaints of severe colicky pain in kidney area radiating to groin
Pain so severe making nauseous
Very rapid pulse
Renal calculus
Renal calculi - what might you find in urine dipstick test
Microscopic blood
Trace blood
6 possible underlying causes renal calculi
Dehydration Alkaline/acid urine Infection Urine obstruction Hyperparathyroidism Gout
Advice given to kidney stone sufferer to prevent recurrence 5
Treat any underlying condition Adjust urine pH through diet Reduce dietary load of oxalates & uric acid Balance calcium levels Increase fluid intake
Where is angiotensinogen
The liver
What overall effect does angiotensin2 have on blood pressure
Raises it
Glomerular filtration occurs in the
Renal capsule
2 other hormones secreted as a result of angiotensin 2 production which affect tubular re absorption and secretion
Aldosterone
Anti diuretic hormone
4 phases of menstrual cycle
1-5 menstrual
6-13 preovulatory
14-17 ovulation
17+ post ovulatory phase
Which hormone secreted by anterior pituitary influences development/maturation of follicles
Follicle stimulating hormone
Which hormone, secreted by Anterior Pituitary leads to rupturing of the mature follicle and expulsion of the egg
Luteinising hormone
What hormone is tested for in pregnancy
Human chorionic gonadotropin hCG
T/F placenta develops from mothers uterine cells
F
T/F
Mother & foetal blood cells cross the placenta
F
T/F certain drugs/stress hormones cross the placenta
True
T/F when placenta attaches close to or covering cervix it is referred to as placenta précis
T
List 3 clinical features of polycystic ovary syndrome
Cysts on ovaries Multiple follicles on ovaries - pearl necklace Amenorrhea Oligomenorrhea Anovulation Infertility Impaired glucose tolerance Hyperinsulinsemia Hirsuitism High oestrogen High testosterone Acanthosis Weight gain Oily skin Acne
Two forms orthodox medical treatment for pcos
OCP - with anti-androgen
Insulin resistance treatment - metformin
Weight loss
Mid-cycle bleeding/bleeding between cycles
Metorrhagia
Absence of periods
Amenorrhoea
Short cycle, frequent periods
Polymenorrhea
Breast tissue in male
Gynocomastia
Form/maintain myelin sheath in CNS
Oligodendrocytes
Hold neurons to blood supply & help make up blood brain barrier
Astrocytes
Form/maintain myelin sheath in PNS
Schwann cells
Phagocytic neuroglia
Mobile in brain
Multiply when brain damaged
Microglia
chemical synapse - nerve impulse travels down axon and finally arrives at the
synaptic end bulb
synapse - depolarisation phase causes what to open and all what into this end of the neuron
calcium channels
calcium
an increased concentration of these ions causes what of what, releasing neurotransmitters into the what?
exocytosis
synaptic vesicles
synaptic cleft
the neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors on the WHAT neurone. this opens ion channels here, allowing ions to flow across the membrane
postsynaptic neuron
the change in ion concentration then triggers what in this neuron
an action potential
what is the potential energy of a neurone at REST
-70mV
which channels/gates in the nerve membrane are BLOCKED by anaesthetics?
sodium channels/gates
tonic-clonic seizures caused by intense/abnormal electrical activity in the brain
Grand Mal Epilepsy
formation of amyloid plaques in the cerebral cortex with atrophy of the nervous tissue.
symptoms start with inability to incorporate new info and memories despite the retention of old info
alzheimer’s disease/dementia
lack of movement, mask like face, low voice, shuffling steps
muscle tiffness, jerky movements, tremors, unstable moods, pill-rolling of fingers
parkinson’s
sudden one-sided facial parylisi following a chronic history of infection with cold sores
bell’s palsy
which enzyme catalyses seratonin
monoamine oxidase
what is main function/effect of nitric oxide
vasodilation - used for angina, lowering BP and raising erections!
MS in associated with progressive demyelination of neurone T/F
T
MS affects the PNS T F
F
a suspected cause of MS may be viral infection TF
T
MS causes progressive paralysis TF
true
2 diff diagnosis instead of ms
slipped/herniated disc
Motor neurone disease
candiasis
function for trigeminal nerve
facial sensations
hypoglassal nerve function
speech
trochlear nerve function
proprioception
which cell/protein inhibits bacterial growth by binding to iron
transferrin
which cell/protein tag invading cells/pathogens for phagocytosis, attract macrophages, form membrane attack complex thereby initiating cytolysis
complement proteins
what is released by a cell that is infected by a virus, stopping replication in nearby other cells
interferon
2 benefits of inflammation
promotes phagocytosis/immune response
toxin dilution
fibrin formation - walls off area/binds wound endges
2 benefits of fever
makes interferon more effective
inhibits growth of some microbes
speeds reactions that aid repair
which 2 types of immune cells are involved at the beginning of cell-mediated immunity
T lymphocytes
phagocytes/macrophages
what is the main cytokine/inflammatory mediator involved in cell-m,edited immunity
interleukin 2
what is name of process of differentiation and proliferation of the activated immune cells involves in cell mediated immunity
clonal selection
name 2 types of cells formed at the end of clonal slection
killer T cells
memory T cells
helper t cells
regulatory t cells
example of artificially acquired active immunity
vaccination
ex of artificially acquired passive immunity
injection with antibodies - ed snake anti-venom
ex of naturally acquired passive immunity
antibody transfer across placenta
Graves disease auto immune?
yes
Ankylosing spondylitis auto immune
yes
osteoarthritis auto immune
no
coeliac disease auto immune
yes
systemic lupus erythematosus auto immune
yes
client anaemic, persistent malaise, recurrent cyclical fever made up of chills, fever & extreme sweating.
also nausea, vomiting, joints ache. been on holiday. urine sample haemoglobinuria. what does she have
malaria
what causes malaria
protozoal - plasmodium parasite carried by female anopheles mosquito
why is malaria sufferer anaemic with haemoglobinuria
plasmodium parasite infects RBCs causing HAEMOLYSIS, releasing loads HAEMOGLOBIN into plasma -
this is filtered/excreted by kidneys into urine
what causes chickenpox
virus
what causes shingles
virus
what causes measles
virus
what causes TB
bacterial
what causes impetigo
bacterial
which immune cells are targeted by HIV
T helper cells & macrophages
list 2 common opportunistic infections that occur in AIDS
candida albicans
pneumonia
cervical cancer
active TB
2 reasons why difficult to develop HIV drugs
virus hides in host cells
virus has few structures of own
virus able to mutate
60 male has problems swallowing pain behind sternum on eating food being regurgitated with non-sour reflux - cough anaemic, weight loss no food allergies, no heartburn what?
oesophageal cancer
1 risk factor for development of oesophageal cancer
smoking
alcohol consumption
history of chronic acid reflux?GORD
what is medical term for ‘weight loiss, muscle atrophy, fatigue, weakness, wasting away”
cachexia
4 early warning signs cancer
unusual bleeding/discharge anaemia change in bladder/bowel habits change in appearance wart/mole sore doesn't heal unexplained weight loss persistent cough solid lump
why do leukaemia sufferers often present with shortness of breath/fatigue
overproduction of WBCs - so less RBCs, platelets
leads to anaemia - presents with SOB & fatigue as less oxygen from RBCs - sufferer will feel hypoxic = shortness of breath
why do benign tumours rarely cause systemic symptoms or death
grow v slow
often encapsulated - so don’t metastasise
which type of tissues do sarcomas develop in
connective tissues - bone, muscle, cartilage
to view object at distance ciliary muscles contract/relax
relax
object at distance lens rounds/flattens
flattens
object at distance eyeballs converge/diverge
diverge
inflammatory balance disorder, following upper respiratory tract infection
mild hearing loss/tinnitus
may be caused by bacterial or viral infection, head injury
Labyrinthitis
most common cause of earache in children - build up of exudate puts pressure on ear and may eventually rupture it
Otitis Media (chronic)
increased pressure within the eye
obstruction of canal of schlemm
intense eye pain, red watery eye, sensitivity to bright lights, nausea vomiting
glaucoma
red swollen/painful infection of sebaceous glands of eyelid by staph
stye
which taste are we most sensitive to
why important
bitter
most poisons are bitter
what process enables sewage workers to work in a smelly environment all day without being bothered
Olfactory Adaptation
urobilinogen urine yes no
yes
uric acid urin y n
y
sodium urine y n
y
albumin urine y n
n
oxalates urine y n
y
ketones urine y n
n
female client - frequent urination, pain on urination, pain lower abdomen, fever. urine dark, smelly, cloudt
(acute) cystitis
urine dipstick test findings acute cystitis
trace blood
nitrates (bacteria)
WBCs
2 causes for cystitis
not emptying fully bacteria pushed in - honeymoon cystitis wiping back - front urine flow obstruction diabetes catheter infection
2 advice to prevent recurrence
lots of water - 2L+ a day avoid alcohol, lots sugar cranberry juice probiotics avoid tights, soaps cotton underwear
3 stages urine formation in kidneys
glomerular filtration
tubular reabsorption
tubular sectretion
2 hormones produced by body to raise BP
Angiotensin 2
Aldosterone
Anti-Diuretic Hormone
Andrenalin?Cortisol
drug prescribed by GPs to lower BP
ACE inhibitors
Diuretics
20 y o woman, no periods, acne, excess facial hair overweight
Polycystic Ovarian Sydrome
2 blood tests to confirm PCOS
high Androgens/testosterone/oestrogen low progesterone high LH:FSH ratio high insulin high blood glucose
which hormone stimulates ovulation
luteinizing hormone
what is wall of follicle that left behind after egg fertilised called
corpus luteum
what is found/made by mothers body but cannot cross placenta
blood cells
male secondary sex characteristics in female
Virilization
lactation not pregnant
galactorrhoea
pain on intercourse female
dyspareunia
no sperm in ejaculate
Azoospermia
lower abdo pain, gradual or sudden, severe ass fever, nausea, vomiting
pain increases with walking
purulent discharge, dysuria
PID
1 nutrient supports/nourishes myelin sheath
phospolipids/omega oils/amino acids/B12
purpose of blood brain barrier
protect brain from harmful substances in bloodstream by maintaining tightness of capillaries/junctions between cells
why might alcohol affect mental cognition
alcohol lipid soluble
crosses blood brain barier
excitatory neurotransmitter ass with voluntary movement, learning, memory
acetylcholine
excitatory neurotransmitter helps regulate mood, sensory perception, temperature, appetite, sleep
serotonin
excitatory neurotransmitter associated with addictive behaviours pleasurable experiences, regulates muscle TONE
dopamine
inhibitory neurotransmittor - inhibits motor neurons/brain activity
GABA
name 1 enzyme breaks down epinephrine
Monoamine Oxidase
Catechol-oxygen-methyl transferase
what does CSF stand for
cerebrospinal fluid
2 functions csf
supports protects brain/cord - shock absorber
maintains uniform pressure around brain
keeps brain/cord moist
circulates nutrients/waste
absences seen in children due to abnormal electrical activity in brain
epilepsy - petit mal seizure
3 causes of inter cranial pressure
haemorrhage tumour trauma infection/abscess inflammation of brain/meninges
2 complications increased cranial pressure
brain damage
death
seizures
2 harmful effects inflammation
swelling - confined space - pressure on nerves/icp!
pain
suppuration/pus formation
atherosclerosis
define systemic lupus erythematous
chronic autoimmune connective tissue disease can affect ANY part of the body
cell-mediated immunity requires antigen presentation to T cells T F
T
b lymphocytes are involved in antibody mediated immunity T F
T
helper T cells are involved in antibody-related immunity T F
t
the main cytokine/inflammatory mediator involved in adaptive immunity is transferrin t f
f
starts with fever & koplik spots on oral mucosa, followed by maculopapular skin rash
measles
v contagious skin infection, common in infants, presents with pustules, round oozing patches, clear blisters, golden yellow crusts. Grow larger daily
impetigo
why does TB primarily affect respiratory system
the mycobacterium Tb is highly AEROBIC, thus requiring high oxygen evils for growth
medical term for spread of cancer to other part of body
metastasis
what is term for medical care for easing of symptoms not recovery
palliative care
4 danger signs skin cancer
asymmetry border irregular colour varied itching bleeding larger than 6mm diameter
what is a tumour marker
proteins, enzymes, hormones produced by some malignant cells
which type of tissues do carcinomas develop in
epithelial tissue
to view up close ciliary muscles
contract
to view close lens becomes
more rounded
to view close the eyeballs
converge
opacity of the lens ass with old age
cataract
one structure in ear involved in balance
vestibular apparatus
what is white noise
sound which contains all frequencies of sound
analogous to white light
brain ignores it
what white noise used for
to mask other sounds - privacy enhancers, sleep aids
