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Pre 1867 Flashcards

1
Q

Historiography

A
  • the history of writing history, the sources and methodologies we use, and how this has changed over time.
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2
Q

Canadian History
- Before 1960 Sources

A

Primarily focused on three main subjects:
- Biographies of important men
- Exploration histories
- Economic/political development

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3
Q

Canadian History
- After 1960

A

Social movements led to “social turn”
- Focus on non-dominant groups - Indig, women, immigrants
- Sources a bit harder to find.

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4
Q

Canadian History
- After 1960 Sources (1)

A
  • Read traditonal sources “against the grain” meaning look for info about non-dominant groups and understand their is biases.
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5
Q

Canadian History
- After 1960 Sources (2&3)

A
  • (2) Expand archieve - collect and preserve materials from new groups.
  • Open definition of archival documents to include new sources
  • (3) Oral Histories
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6
Q

Oral Histories

A
  • Revive/record oral traditions
  • Primarily Indigenous
  • Oral history has own rules to preserve it
  • Constantly being created
  • Only works in recent history - people die
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7
Q

Oral History
- Ongoing issues in Indigenous History (3)

A
  1. Colonial genocide creates gaps in transmission
  2. Loss of original languages
  3. Unbvalanced ability to different indigenous groups to preserve history - Some groups had louder voices and easier to archive.
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8
Q

Facts

A

Bumstead - Facts are problematic, scary and confusing
- Sources created by humans are bias
- Facts such as events in history are not negotiable, but how we make sense of them is subject to critical thinking skills

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9
Q

Indigenous Home Worlds Prior to Contact
- Grouped together
- Indian Term

A
  • Often indigenous persons prior to contact are grouped together with others who share common linguistic ancestors
  • Only use term in a direct quote or referencing.
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10
Q

How do we know about Indigenous groups prior to contant?
- 3 main sources

A
  1. Oral Histories
  2. archeological/anthropological evidence
  3. Narratives of early European explorers and colonists read against the grain

None are perfect and often used together.

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11
Q

Oral Histories (1)
- Creative Narratives

A
  • Most narratives have connections to land
  • Don’t put humans at centre of creation or only beings capable of concious thought.
  • Humans caught up in metaphysical system, but can influence system with supernatural entities.
  • Many ceremonies focused on restoring balance
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12
Q

Different Creation Narratives
- Blackfoot
- Cree

A

Blackfoot: Humans molded from earth by creator.

Cree:
- creator made earth, animals and humans
- fought until the earth was red with blood
- earth was flooded.
- Muskrat survived - dived down - pulled up piece of the earth from under the water
- new people grew.

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13
Q

Different Creation Narratives
- Athapasken Beaver
- Coast Salish
- Haida

A

Athapasken Beaver: humans arrive on the earth by travelling through a hollow log.

Coast Salish: humans arrive on the earth after crossing over frozen water which was thawed after they arrived by their guardian spirit to protect them.

Haida: The haida were found on a beach trapped in a giant clamshell before the were freed and brought out by a raven.

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14
Q

Archeological/Anthropological Evidence (2)

A
  • Few bones due to climate
  • Mostly artifacts
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15
Q

Anthropology
- Land Bridge Theory

A
  • Dominant theory
  • 15-75,000 yrs ago ice age lowered sea level
  • Created land bridge across Bering Sea strait - Beringa (East Coast)
  • Animals crossed first then humans
  • Supported by similar tools found on either side of strait.
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16
Q

Land Bridge Theory
- Concerns

A

New evidence suggests their would have still been ice across the strait.
- So possibly boat accross
- Evidence also suggests people could traverse accross ice in those days.

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17
Q

Next Theory
- Arrival by sea theory

A
  • Focuses on west coast
  • 50,000 yrs ago indigenous groups had ships for large voyages.
  • Aided by currents moving from Japan to Americas across pacific - Linquistic evidence.
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18
Q

Footprints in New Mexico

A

Discovered in 2009 and published in 2021
Important why?
- Push back date of human settlement to DURING the ice age.
- Doesnt mean people did not come by beringa or boat.

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19
Q

Narratives of early European explorers and colonists read against the grain (3)

A
  • First used by Indian historians - recover Indian experiences during colonial occupation by Britain - Only British sources to use.
  • Records from early explorers - accounts, diaries, notes and letters.
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20
Q

Experiences of Indig People Prior to Contact
- Carrying capacity
- Megafauna extinction

A
  • Indig people have occupied America immemorial
  • Adapted to all ecological niches
  • Set up internal trade

Land at carrying capacity by sustained contact on 1500s.
- Supported by geological and archeological evidence - mass extinction event of megafauna led to people focusing more on smaller animals like Bison.
- Scholars believe overhunting also contributed.

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21
Q

Experiences Cont.

A
  • FN groups set up trade routes in America
  • Not all nomadic - many settlements such as aztec and mayans
  • Many settlements on west coast - stable climate
  • Wandering groups had set paths due to migration patterns and weather.
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22
Q

The Case of Agriculture

A
  • Myth that FN people were not using land for agriculture
  • European and FN definitions of agriculture were different
  • Many forms of early agriculture and land management
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23
Q

Agriculture Examples

A
  • Slash and burn - Crops and grass - NW Woodlands
  • Aquaculture - Fish farming
  • medicinal plants for cultivating
  • Domestication of dogs - meat, hunting, travelling
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24
Q

Problem with early Agriculture

A
  • ## Does not leave much evidence as tools were mostly stone or biodegradable
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25
Q

When agriculture started

A

Started in different areas around the same time 10-15,000 yrs ago
- Worldwide climate change allowed this
- changing carbondioxide in atmosphere allowed for faster growing and bigger plants

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26
Q

Pre-Contact
- Huron and Iroquois
- Three Sisters

A
  • Most agricultural
  • 3 sisters: corn, squash, beans from south americas in 1300s.
  • Advantages: adaptable to climates, replenished soil - move fileds every 15 yrs, eat together to get most nutrition.
  • Agriculture provided 50-70% of calories.
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27
Q

Huron Confederacy

A

1500s
- 2300 sq miles of cultivated land
- 25 villages - 30,000 people
- Huron main language, but many dialects
- Central gov’t
- All came together for Feast of the Dead.

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28
Q

Iroquois Confederacy

A

1500s
- Many languages
- 16,000 people
- villages spread out
- Villages had more power
- Dealt with external threats more than internal operations
- ran by 50 sachem chiefs
- Women chose chiefs from elite families
- Governed by the Great League of Peace

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29
Q

Great League of Peace

A

Founded by
- Dekanawidah (heavenly messanger)
- Hiawatha (One who Combs)
- Power solidified by by a 1451 solar eclipse

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30
Q

Algonquian and Athapaskan Groups

A
  • Moved lots - animals and weather
  • Small animals killed with spears/arrows
  • Large animales - snares in closed areas or herded into water and then speared
  • Some of the best trappers - early fur traders - beavers and hares
  • Engaged in fishery in spring - women job - hook, lines, spears, traps
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31
Q

Maritime Groups
- Malseet
- Micmac
- Beothuk

A
  • Earliest contact with settler - Norse settlement
  • Divide time between coast line and forest
  • Beothuk wiped out by contact experience
  • skin or bark tents
  • seaworthy conaoes
  • used powdered hematite for painting - red indian term
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32
Q

The Inuit

A
  • most adaptable
  • misnamed “eskimo” - algonquin term meaning “meat eaters”
  • Primary food was from the ocean
  • Large mammals - polar bear, walrus, whales, eals,etc.
  • ## Used advanced weapons - atlatals, drift wood handled harpoons
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33
Q

Inuit Con’t

A
  • Used bone bows to hunt in the forest
  • invented the kayak
  • Invented Umiak - sea hunting and moving lots
  • Sled dogs - if they had means to maintain them.
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34
Q

Indigenous Plains People
- Economy?
- Horses?

A
  • Bison center of economy, but also hunted elk/moose and fish using a weir.
  • Horses introduced by Spain in 1500s.
  • Evidence suggests horses were here previously, but wiped out and then re-introduced by spain.
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35
Q

Plains People Hunting Methods Pre-horses
- Pounds

A
  • Groups came together under a leader/poundmaker for hunts
  • Summer and winter hunts
  • Internal police force - burn items if you do not follow rules
  • Used a Pound - circular enclosure with a fenced chute at the mouth. Herded into area and then community used lances, bows and arrows.
  • Mostly done for winter hunts.
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36
Q

Plains People
- Jumps
- Encircling

A
  • Rush bison off cliff using fire and drovers on foot
  • Enclosure at base to contain those that did not die
  • Prominent sights used as trading posts

Third method was encircling herd on foot - dangerous.

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37
Q

Plains People
- Bison Uses
- Pemmican

A
  • Used for clothing, lodging, food, tools, etc.
  • Used for trading
  • Preserved meat as pemmican - meat, fat, and berries mixed - packed into hides - slowed bacteria
  • Lots of calories when moving.
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38
Q

West Coast and Interior Groups
- Salmon
- Language

A
  • Salmon central to food economy and social structures.
  • Salmon brought groups together
  • Many languages suggesting settlement very early. Pacific coast was ice free earlier so this may be possible.
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39
Q

West Coast and Interior
- The Salmon Economy
- Haida

A
  • Supply greater on coast over rivers - depended on spawning
  • Preserved through drying or smoking
  • Eulachon fish gave vitamin filled oil
  • Dried salmon low on fat and traded
  • Some groups ate shellfish
  • Haida hunted seals and sea otters
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40
Q

West Coast and Interior
- Whaling

A
  • Nu-chan-uth hunted whales - claim only ones
  • Oral stories say different
  • Others may have used beached or trapped whales
  • Whaling techniques had already been developed and passed north.
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41
Q

West Coast and Interior
- Inland Groups

A
  • Relied more on hunting
  • Gathered huckleberries to dry into cakes
  • Had principle winter dwelling and several summer dwelling locations
  • Shelters had stationary beams and moveable outside planks.
  • weaved wool and cedar.
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42
Q

Pacific Coast and Interior
- Divisons
- Leaders

A
  • More developed society
  • Had gender division of labor
  • Organized via rigid class system
  • Clear leaders - wealthy
  • Wealth came from passing down prime fishing/hunting spots. Only kin could use spots unless permission provided
  • Displaying wealth done through gifting during ceremonies - Potlatch.
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43
Q

Pacific Coast and Interior Cont.
- Slavery

A
  • Practiced slavery - part of economic system
  • Slaves had no rights and not likely to be freed
  • Usually captured or group members heavily in debt.
  • Capturing slaves via raiding improved social status
  • Most Pacific coast groups were distinct entities
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44
Q

Contact between Indigenous in Canada
- Trading

A
  • Many trade routes
  • Specific protocol for trade to avoid conflict
  • Goods traded and gifted
  • Ceremonies included gift giving and done often to reinforce relationship
  • Gift giving also displayed wealth, rank and power
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45
Q

European Home Worlds
- Differences between Euro and Indig

A
  • Indigenous people saw humans as part of creation - Christianity put them at the Center of creation
  • European lives differed between nations and classes (feudalism)
  • ## United by gov’t style and religion - Monarchs and Christianity
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46
Q

European Home Worlds
- Changes

A

Europe had big changes already.
- 1400s Renaissance in italy - led to intellectualism
- Johannes Gutenberg created printing press in 1440 - cheaply made - mass literacy
- Sharing info easier and faster.

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47
Q

Euro Home Worlds
- Feudalism
- Modern Gov’t

A

Feudalism dying
- kings claim divine rights/more power

Eventually modern gov’t created and could borrow money
- States got bigger via conquest and colonization
- Very Rural - 70% pop tied to agriculture which demonstrated wealth.

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48
Q

Euro Home Worlds
- Primogeniture
- Women’s Place
- Witchcraft

A

Most places organized with some form of Primogeniture - son inherits titles and land
- Women rarely inherit
- Almost no rights
- Barred from school and guilds
- Witchcraft accusations - 60,000 killed between 1500-1750.

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49
Q

Euro Home World
- Changes in the church

A
  • Roman catholic church dominant
  • Facing internal issues
  • Nation state on its own
  • Chruch divided in classes - bishops, priests, cardinals, pope, etc.
  • Huge cathedrals - demonstrate power
  • Promised better afterlife and took lots of tithes
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50
Q

Euro Home World
- Martin Luther

A
  • Young monk
  • spoke out against extreme practices - spending habits and paying for penance
  • Used printing press to spread his views
  • Excommunicated
  • ## Started Protestant Reformation in 1517
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51
Q

Euro Home World
- King Henry

A
  • Breaks off of Roman Catholic church and starts Church of England
  • Takes wealth from British monasteries
  • Protestants and catholics at a spiritual arms race in converting Indigenous people in Canada
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52
Q

First Contacts and Early Settlements

A
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53
Q

Concepts
- The Contact Zone
- Who Developed?

A

Developed by Mary Pratt: Imperial Eyes - Travel Writing and Transculturation (1992)
- The space of colonial encounters, where people once separated established ongoing relationships.
- “usually involving conditions of coercion, racial inequality, and intractable conflict”.

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54
Q

Concepts
- The “Other”

A

Processes by which one group is constructed as dissimilar from another.
- Then how they represent that group such as through stereotypical images like caricatures.

Construction of a group of others
- Euros come and have ideas.
- Start to characterize natives
- Created system saying they are the best and on top of natives (the other)
- Part of colonialism to exclude other groups.

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55
Q

Contacts -Background

A

Europeans figure out Americas unique landmass
- Begin getting a foothold in future Canada
- If Indigenous groups has not met Euro directly they have indirectly through trade routes.

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56
Q

The Norse Contact
AKA Vikings
- When and Books

A
  • Made contact in about 1000AD.
  • Evidence of settlement Vinland in modern day L’Anse aux Meadows
  • Norse writings detail how vikings got here, but done in style like it was actually happening.

Books
- The Saga of Eric the Red
- The Saga of the Greenlanders
- Islendingabok

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57
Q

Norse Contact Experience
- Vinland
- Poeple

A
  • Remains show many buildings with sod over wooden frames
  • Central meeting building and blacksmith
  • 70-90 people including women - usually means settling.
  • Stayed one winter and settlement disbanded quickly in orderly fashion
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58
Q

Norse Contact Experience
- Why did viking leave so fast?

A

Sagas say local inhabitants called Skraelings (small or withered)
- Small men with beards who made hissing noises
- Theory does not make sense as viking have good weapons and could fend off Skraelings.
- Skraelings may have been indigenous people portrayed as mythical.
- Vikings ended up in Greenland

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59
Q

The “Discovery”of the Americas by Europe
- Why?

A
  • Spurred by renaissance developments in geogrpahy
  • Desire for easy route to Asia
  • England, Spain, Portugal have few internal resources so built trade empires elswhere.
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60
Q

Giovanni Cabot/John Cabot

A

– means “coastal seaman”.
- Was living in Spain, but when to England to find backer for expedition.
- Henry 7th Provided ship “Michael” and 18 crew.
- Landed in NFL and thought it was Asia
- Finds fish and reports it.
- Get another expedition in 1498, but went down in ocean.

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61
Q

Impacts of Cabot

A
  • Euros figure out Americas are new landmass
  • Want to know size and what resources are there?
  • Again notice lots of fish
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62
Q

France Enters Party

A

Took a bit because they had resources at home
- Had no sailors themselves so had to hire Jacques Cartier

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63
Q

Jacques Cartier

A
  • Rumored to have been to Brazil and New France
  • No way to check resume
  • Need for proof led to kidnapping natives
  • Used them for funding and shows what they already thought of Natives.
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64
Q

Cartier and King Francis I of France

A

King Francis supports voyage in 1534
- Makes it to Gaspe Harbour (Quebec)
- Meet Iroquois at Stadacona
- Cartier took items for trading
- Erected 9 meter high cross on beach
- Local Chief Donacona and members go to ships in canoes.

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65
Q

Cartier and Donacona Kin

A
  • Cartier kidnaps Donaconas kin Taignoagny and Domagaya for guides and proof
  • Boys taken to europe in order to get more funding
  • Francis funds second voyage
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66
Q

Cartier Second Voyage

A

Francis funds second voyage
- Hope that St. Lawrence river will provide way through continent to Asia
- More supplies - stay over winter
- Cartier makes blunders starting with setting up camp without permission
- Doesnt make trading alliance
- Goes up river without permission
- Donacona Kin welcomed home and told of bad treatment.

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67
Q

Cartier Paranoia and Scurvy

A
  • Paranoid Donacona and family plotting against him
  • Cuts off ties with Iroquois when epidemic hits, but they still get scurvy
  • Donacona saves them with white cedar tea - vitamin C
  • Donacona puts up with them in hopes of trade.
    -Cartier learns St. Lawrence does not go through to Asia.
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68
Q

Cartier and Saguenay

A

Donacona tells about Saguenay which is a kingdom ran by white men.
- Kingdom rich in gold, silver, and jewels.
- Kingdom may have been inland copper deposits
- May have been Donacona repeating a story he heard about south american empires
- Donacona may have been making it up.

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69
Q

Cartier kidnaps Donacona.
- Sieur de Roberval

A
  • Wants more funding
  • Directions to Saguenay
  • Hopes weaker chief will take over
  • France believes Indigenous people innocent and to stupid to lie
  • King supports third voyage in 1541
  • Appoints Sieur de Roberval - viceroy of Saguenay.
  • Roberval follows behind Cartier with more supplies and colonizers.
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70
Q

Cartier Cont. Conflict with Iroquois

A
  • Failed to return one captive women who died.
  • Afraid she would tell of mistreatment
  • Sets up settlement in Cap Rouge without permission again.
  • Iroqouis want kin back and don’t believe Cartiers lies.
  • Tensions increase
  • Cartier leaves, meets Roberval in harbour and directs him to settlement.
71
Q

Roberval Takes Over

A
  • Goes to settlement
  • Scurvy hits again
  • Iroquois won’t help this time
  • 1543 Roberval and survivors head home
  • Roberval blamed for settlement failure
  • France pauses settlement idea due to failure and political changes.
72
Q

Canada as a Sojourner Society

A

A place where people come to extract resources through labour and trade, and then return home.
- Several trips
- no permanent settlement desire
- Infrastructure meant for processing raw materials
- Dominated by Basque fisherman/whalers off of NFL coast
- Whale oil used for lamps and lubricants.

73
Q

Sojourner Society
- Why so obsessed with fish?
- Who controlled trade?

A
  • Fish needed to support Catholic Church fasting practices
  • Easy to preserve
  • Basque controlled Atlantic trade. Arrived in spring and left in December
  • salted fish on beach and traded with Mi’kmaq
74
Q

Epidemics and Impacts

A

Major unintended consequence at contact
- European diseases becomes shock troops
- Spread and contact and then through trade networks
- Mass evidence of major death events. mass sites of unburied and hastly buried corpses.

75
Q

Epidemics and Impacts
- Diseases

A

Measels, mumps, pneumonic and bubonic plague, scarlet fever, etc.
- Small pox worst
- caused by variola virus
- Rash that blistered
- high fever

Complications: blindness, joint and bone infections and pneumonia
- Very contagious - saliva droplets and rash.

76
Q

Epidemica and Impacts
- Who took care of sick?

A
  • All got sick at once. Nobody to care for each other.
  • Europe older generation immune
  • Normal mortality rat 3/10
  • No way to prevent spread or treat symptoms.
  • FN culture made it worse as they would bring community together for support.
77
Q

Epidemics and Impacts
- Cascade effects

A

Many died from cascade effects
- malnurished as nobody to collect food
- Social and leader breakdowns creating internal political struggles
- Outsiders attack as they are weak
- Disease helped to make way for European settlement

78
Q

Fisheries and Pirates

A
79
Q

English Fishermen in NFL

A

Good that Canada was sojourner society - not enough fish in Iceland
- English able to find niche in market due to decline in Spain and Basque over taxing.
- Set out from sea ports in Bristol, Devon, and Cornwall
- Many claims as to what Canada will be, but European rulers paid little attention to it.

80
Q

Push Factors towards English Settled Fishery

A
  • Drying method was cheaper as salt had to be imported.
  • Less salt during drying process
  • Infrastructure had to be rebuilt every year - weathered.
  • Too much rowing between large ships and shore.
81
Q

Push Factors Cont.
- Plantation Style Colony

A
  • Fisherman took whatever proce offered in Europe
  • English civil war broke out making colonization more attractive.
  • NFL plantation style modeled after Virgina
  • Plantation meaning large scale agriculture with slaves (tobacco, cotton)
  • Colonies usually structured around one resource. Rich bring in people to harvest resource and create communities.
82
Q

First English Settlement in NFL
- Charter and Cove

A
  • 1610 Company for Colonization created
  • King James 1 grants charter for Cuper’s Cove
  • Later charter goven for whole island
  • Charter system is low risk, but huge benefits for James
  • Charter iteslf can be sold to other companies, but can be revoked by King.
83
Q

Benefits fo Charter for King

A
  • Get settlers in new world supporting English claim
  • Not responsible for infrastructure or law and order.
  • PR bump for Christian foothold in Pagan world
  • NFL nursery for sailors - experienced seaman for navy.
84
Q

NFL and Mercantile System

A

Company pays settler to come harvest resource. NFL brought over fishing families
- Provides loans and grants
- Provides basic social structures
- Company defrays cost by selling stock.
- Company who holds charter controls trade. Here fisherman have to sell to the company.
- Company then sells in Europe and gives profits to shareholders.

This type of investment risky, but not here as product and market already established.

85
Q

Cuper’s Cove Initially

A
  • Did great due to mild winters
  • Winters not ususaally mild and they thought they could grow both food and livestock feed.
  • Only four deaths
  • Oddas usually populating a colony meant large death numbers
  • Created good relationship with Beothuk
86
Q

Cuper’s Cove
- Following Year

A
  • Scury again
  • Realize land not good for crops
  • Fails to miantain relationship with Beothuk
  • Some died, other went home and some stayed.
  • Company for the Colonization of NFL gives up charter. Sold many times until 1825.
87
Q

Issues with Mercantile System

A

Members have different goals
- Charter holders want money
- Settlers want new life
- Settler produce one thing and trapped by market
- Company hold financial pwer through Truck Practices. They set prices for fish and also sell supplies to settlers.
- Manipulates system so settles don’t get ahead.
- settlers have to provide and maintain fishing infrastructure.

88
Q

Issues Cont.
- Agriculture

A
  • Structural issues worsen with weather
  • Winter cold and short growing season
  • Rocky soil with few nutrients
  • not enough feed for livestock
  • have to buy supplies wich is more debt.
  • Other industry is seal hunting.
89
Q

Families and Growth of NFL
- Family fishing Crews

A
  • Increase in pop as focus on families and not individuals.
  • Families took over from the professional processing crews.
90
Q

Processing System

A

Fisherman: throws catch onto stage.

Runners: take fish to processing huts

Header: slits fish’s belly open, removes liver from making cod liver oil, discards guts

Splitter: splits the fish open to remove the bones

Salter: lays the fish out to dry and applies the salt - also watches them to keep them safe from weather

91
Q

Importance of Unpaid Female Work
- Gardens

A
  • Make/train new workers
  • maintain kitchen garden
  • Garden needed for nutrition and preservation of food
  • Had to create topsoil by cutting sod from wood and then putting in human crap and fish bi-products.
  • Neighbors would steal from each other.
92
Q

Importance of Unpaid Female Work

A
  • Fetch water from streams and rivers
  • Small livestock maintained by women
  • Surplus sold to merchant families
  • Gathered berries
  • Maintain clothing. Labour intensive to make from wool if you had sheep.
  • Patch clothing as much as possible.
93
Q

Social Composition of NFL Communities
- Merchant Families
- Indentured Servants

A
  • Had class and gender distinctions
  • fewer women, but enough for natural increase.

Merchant families wealthiest or their managers
- Educated
- Big houses
- Had servants - women who usually married fisherman
- Provided work for different trades.

Indentured servants - Passage paid by employer and they would then work it off while getting room and board. Later became fishermen.

94
Q

The End of the Mercantile System

A
  • Lasted until 1825 when Crown makes NFL official colony
  • No more charters and fishermen can engage in free market, but still limited companies to sell fish to for import.
  • Governor appointed
  • Ended Oligarchy style gov’t (merch families)
  • 1832 NFL gets responsible gov’t with elected officials.
95
Q

Pirates of Atlantic

A

Prime conditions
- Many countries fighting over resources
- Turned blind eye as long as they robbed other country
- Many non-professiional raiders
- Many Privateers - pirates goven commission and ship to raid and sink enemy ships.
- Rarely any bloodshed
- Looked for lower value cargo with less guards

96
Q

Peter Easton - NFL Premier Pirate

A

1602-1615
- Privateer who raided Spanish for English Queen Elizabeth 1st.
- Steals his ship “The Happy Adventurer” and goes rouge in 1603.
- Starts with NFL settlers paying him for protection. Usually with supplies
- Gets 10 ships with 5-1400 men.
- Attacked English and nonn-english ships

97
Q

Retirement

A
  • Built fortress at Harbour Grace and defended with canons.
  • Applied for pardon from King James 1. Took to long to get to him though.
  • Moved to Tunis
  • Duke of Duchy of Salvoy declares Nice and Villefranche free port cities where pirates can pay for asylum.
  • Becomes friend with Duke after helping with defences
  • Duke makes him Marquis of Savoy
  • Marries a Heiress and retires in luxury.
98
Q

Life in New France Part 1

A
99
Q

Background
- Indians
- Fisherman
- Samuel Champlain

A
  • Disease and events led to indigenous groups moving around.
  • Iroqouis moved south
  • Algonquin groups moved into area and allied with Hurons.

Fisherman in Atlantic and gulf of St, Lawrence began trading furs with Indians.
- This becomes primary trade for Canada.

Samuel de Champlain travelling to St, Lawrence.
- “Father of New France”
- Published Des Sauvages, on Voyagede Samuel Chaplain on 1603.

100
Q

Influence of Samuel Champlain

A
  • Gets funds for trading post in Canada
  • Goes up the St. Lawrence river to avoid competition with Basque.
  • Allows them first pick of furs.
101
Q

Champlain

A
  • Ambitious and mobile
  • Trained soldier
  • Devout Catholic
  • One of first to see new land as a place for people without money to move upwards.
102
Q

Champlain
- Indigenous Relations

A

Learned to work with indigenous people for mutual benefit
- Adapted indigenous technology instead of forcing european technology

Algonquin Birch Bark Canoe
- maneuverable when loaded
- readily available resources
- very light

Trading partners also taught him about proper clothing and scurvy.

103
Q

Samuel Champlain
- Fur Traders

A
  • Willing to learn Indian language, customs. obligations and alliancces.
  • Understood alliance also means going to war. Made Iroqouis enemies of Hurons and French
104
Q

Samuel Champlain
- Settling Views

A
  • Still a settler who believed French had right to settle.
  • Could not recognize Indian religion as valid so he brought Catholic missionaries.
  • They had long term impacts
  • settled Quebec in 1608
    Sovereign Council in 1663, but started as early as 1647.
105
Q

Mercantile System in New France
- Differences from NFL
- Habitants

A

Charter holders controlled fur trade
Diffrences from NFL
- Oligarchy merchants still, but tempered by colony’s official status.
- Governors council - intendent main rep for colony, but also had church reps and merchant reps.
- Not just needs of fur trade heard.
- Habitants (peasant settlers) could protest as they had more power here then in France.

106
Q

Merc System in New France Cont.
- Soldiers

A

Strong military presence
- colony had official status
- threats from Iroquois after 1667 peace treaty.
- Colonial wars with English
- Prevented lawlessness/raiding
- Soldier gave labour to farmers Oct-May
- Given incentives to stay and settle.

107
Q

Merc System in New France Cont.
- Economy

A

More diverse economy
- timber trade
- fertile land with Indigenous and French crops adapting to climate
- Close to markets in west indies
- Fur trade still dominant

108
Q

Seigneurial System
- Agriculture

A

Agriculture arranged into **seigneurial system. **
French Crown claimed land and divided it into seigneuries
- Seigneuries granted to landlords who rent to tenants (habitants)
- Always settled in strips towards river for irrigation and transport
- Created a long village between Quebec city and Montreal.
- Village hard to defend

109
Q

Seigneurial System
- Who it benefits

A

Generally benefitted tenant
- Mutual obligations
- Landlords had to build infrastructure such as bread ovens and mills.
- They don’t make money as landlord could not charge much rent without scaring people off.
- Had to rent to habitants wanting to farm.

110
Q

Seigneurial System - Why would landlord buy land?
- Businessmen
- Church
- Nobles

A

French Businessmen
- Part of investment portfolio. Risky but big gains
- Most had managers running operations

Catholic Church
- Always had large holdings
- rented or had monasteries/nunneries
- Spiritual investment as land was foothold in new world
- Felt duty of care for settlers and Indians

Local Noble Families
- Social investment with voice in New France gov’t.

111
Q

Social Organization in New France
- Parish Priests

A

First structure was parish church
- Needed 50 families to support parish priest via tithes.
- 1659 3 parishes
- 1721 82 parishes, but no resident priest -used circuit priests/missionaries
- Local church gathering place and educational centre.

112
Q

Social Organization
- Family

A

First unit of social organization
- mutual obligations both legal and cultural norms
- averaged 11 children - 7 made adulthood

Patriarchal tradition
- men head
- children ask permission to marry.
- Could be disinherited from family
- Cannot be an adult without being married.

113
Q

Social Organization
- Family Cont.

A
  • Nepotism used to balance patriarchal authority
  • Advancement for you is advancement fo family
  • Father sets up sons with land or apprenticeship.
  • Young sons could choose church - giving child demonstrated familty piety.
114
Q

Law and Family

A

French common law gave women and children more rights than British
- Both men and women had to agree to sell land/business. Prairie women get that after great depression.
- Women and adult children divided estate.
- Orphaned children made into indentured servants until 12.

115
Q

Law and Family Cont.

A
  • Women outlived men past childbearing years.
  • Widows with children became heads of house and businesses.
  • Children would take care of parents
  • Youngest son could be deeded farm in exchnage of taking care of parents.
  • Women could be head of house while husband working in fur trade.
116
Q

Law and Family Cont.
- Seperation of Goods
- Seperation of Bed and Board

A

Women could get legally seperate but not divorced as against church and common laws.

Seperation of Goods
- Husband mismanaged money then wife could take over portion of money to take care of kids.

Seperation of bed and board
- Not illegal to beat wife/kids, but extreme violence or forced prostitution could result in women and children granted a second life with alimony.

117
Q

Law and Family
- Seperation cont.
- Charivari

A
  • Not easy to get
  • Women needed impeccable moral character
  • Women in England gets this in 1980s.
  • Could not get married again
  • Community could punish husband via charivari - rough music outside house at night.
118
Q

Life in New France Part 2

A
119
Q

The Question of Women
- Why not Indigenous women?

A

Lots of men, but not many white women of marriagable age.

Why not Indigenous?
- Popular with fur trade, but not in colony
- Church discouraged - men become more indigenous and might leave colony.
- men engaged in marriage lke relationships, but nothing formal

120
Q

The Question of Women Cont.
- Colonial Concerns

A

Colonial officals concerned
- Want colony homegrown settlers
- Afraid of inbred
- Threats from English colonies
- Women labour allows colony to grow and survive. Men away lots.
- Worreid men will take on fur trade full time instead of settling.

121
Q

Answer to Women Question
- Jean Talon
- Filles Du Roi Program

A

Intendant pleads for more women sent to colony
- Between 1663-73 770 women arrive

Filles du roi program starts.
Recruitment
- Recruiters get commission and most worked for church or charity groups
- Recruited from orphanages, free hospitals, rural parishes.
- Most women were to marry anyways, but New France gave more options and chance to raise status.

Don’t know much about them and have tried to learn via marriage and baptisimal records.

122
Q

Fillies - What do we know about them?
- Age
- Class
- Why go

A
  • Early teens to late 30s - childbearing years.
  • Physically able - trip and labour.
  • Robust enough to bear children and not die.
  • Mostly uneducated - 23% could sign names.
  • Received 50 livres

12% from middle class or minor nobility
- literate
- suffered status loss due to father dying
- Unlikely to marry in France
- Received up to 600 livres.

11% broke of first engagments to go.
- colony lofe seemed better
- Mentally tough due to childhood
- Lived longer than men if survived childbearing years.
- More fertile than women in France - one child per year.

123
Q

The Fillies du Roi
- The trip

A

Voyage took 6-9 week
- Rough and dangerous
- Women chaperoned by nuns
- 10% of passengers would die
- Came in waves, but lived in overcrowded houses in Quebec.

124
Q

The Fillies Du Roi
- The Men

A

When ship arrived they would go to present themselves
- Wanted out of fathers control
- Single men penalized via taxes
- Sinlge men had to be married within 15 days of ship arriving.
- Wanted sexual rights and companionship
- would recieve dowry money - livestock, materials, etc.

125
Q

The Fillies Du Roi
- Why so healthy?

A
  • Better food
  • Less malnutrition disease such as rickets.
  • More protein
  • Warm often as they had firewood
  • Less poverty disease -pneumonia, cholera, etc.

Overall the program was a huge success.

126
Q

Life in New France
- Literacy

A

Big historiographical question
- Comparisons made with 13 USA colonies
- Majority of NF habitants illiterate
- Cycles of literacy as some women could teach children
- Church focused on religious teaching and focused on needs of farms.
- No printing press in colony

127
Q

Life in New France
- Food

A
  • Mostly bread, soup, stews
  • adjusted to what was on hand
  • could be left cooking until needed
  • Had sweets due to maple sugar
  • Taught process by Indigenous allies.
128
Q

Life in New France
- Clothing

A

Habitant clothing
- Practical
- simple european peasant wear
- Skirts off ground to keep clean - worn with short jackets
- Men wore breeches and shirts
- most wore moccasins bought from Indians

129
Q

Life in New France
- Entertainment

A
  • Folk music and dancing
  • Storytelling included adapted Indigenous stories
  • Carnival before lent biggest celebration
  • Food, drinks, costumes, plays, etc.
130
Q

Life in New France
- The Upper Class

A

3.5% wealthy or minor nobility (second estate)
- less money to support cultural activites
- Most New France elite tied to military who were less educated than court nobility.
- focus on honor in fist fights and dueling.
- Elite women would run businesses on husband absence

131
Q

Life in New France
- Upper class clothing
- Homes

A
  • Kept up with court dress/fashions
  • Powdered wigs
  • Imported fabrics - velvet, satin, silks, shoes.
  • Fancy clothing for church and parties
  • Stately homes in urban Quebec and Montreal - music instruments, stained glass, libraries.
132
Q

Fur Trade Part 1

A
133
Q

Background
- Beavers

A

1600-1800s
Beaver felt hats popular in Europe.
- Water repellant and used for hundreds of years
- Mentioned in Canterbury Tales 1300s

European beaver replaced by American beavers (castor fiber vs castor canadenis)
- Euro beaver on average larger, but Amer beaver cab grow larger.
- Again euro factors affect Canada
- Other animals traded, but not as valuable.

134
Q

Background Cont.
- Who traded?
- Champlain

A
  • Focus on export raw material
  • Europeans traded with Indians who traded with other indians.
  • French - Champlain - allied with Huron and their allies.
135
Q

Background
- Companie des Cent-Associe
- Historical Enemies

A

First trade monopoly
- Focus on defence of trading posts from Iroquois and English traders

Two historical enemies. Both wanted control of fur trade.
- Iroquois/English
- Hurons/French

136
Q

Background
- What do Indigenous gain?
- Companie of the Habitants

A
  • Euro trade goods
  • kettles, axes, firearms
  • French would not arm Hurins unless converted

Companie des Cent-Associe falls
- Charter given to oligarchy families call Companie of the Habitants
- Provides protection
- regulates trade
- settle 20 settlers a yr.
- 1000 beaver skins paid to crown

137
Q

The Fur Traders
- Coureurs de bois

A
  • “Runners of the Woods”
  • Not easily ruled
  • Smuggled if taxes to high
  • Spent most time with Indigenous allies than colony
  • Explored west to map land for euros
138
Q

The Fur Trade
The French Crown

A
  • Tries using trade to grow colony
  • French traders could buy furs from whomever, but had to sell to Charter holder.
  • tied charter to working land and giving aid to catholic missionaries for conversion
  • French traders managed own affairs.
139
Q

Hurons and Iroquois in Fur Trade

A

Huron and French traders pushed inward to Ottawa
- Iroquois would raid supply lines

Iroquois extinguished beavers in their territory, went into Huron territory in 1600s.

140
Q

The Beaver Wars AKA Iroquois wars

A
  • Many battles and raids
  • Main raid was sacking Huronia in 1649
  • Many Hurons killed
  • Other fled to New France for protection
  • Some adopted into Iroquois community
  • Iroquois moved into Huron territory
  • French make peace in 1653 and 1667
141
Q

New France Attempts to Control Traders
- John Baptiste

A

Many men away from colony worried officials
- Hard to defend
- Tensions between France and English grows
- 1682 colonial official John-Baptiste creates the Conge System.

142
Q

Conge System

A

Conge = Licence to trade
- Only 75 men allowed gone to trade at one time
- colonists to wait for their turn
- Furs have different characteristics and values throughout year.
- System failed

143
Q

Britain in Hudson Bay
- Pierre-Esprit Radisson
- Médard Chouart Des Groseilliers

A
  • Looking for north foothold
  • Brother in-laws who show Brits passage through Hudson Bay and introduce them to Cree trading partners
  • Grew up with Mohawks and the decided to go around lake superior to collect furs.
  • french governor saw their success and gave them one year in New France. A few days late and governor took everything from them. This led to them going to the English in 1660. May 2, 1670 they got charter and started HBC and the colony of Rupert’s Land.
144
Q

Hudson Bay Company Formed

A

Charles II grants Charter to all water that flow into Ruperts Land
- Prince Ruperts one of founders of company

Military style organization
- General Court - board - London based.
- Governor and committee run operations
- Based on stationary posts called factories
- Reports lots to London
- No desire for settlement oR missionary work

145
Q

Britain in Hudson Bay
- Sojourner Society
- Monastic Expectations

A
  • Keep Canada sojourner society
  • men would spend several years, but not settle or marry
  • Many bachelors from Scottish Orkney Islands
  • Last port before crossing Atlantic

Monastic expectations
- don’t mess with Cree women and ruin trade
- Indian tradition allowed for trade alliances cemented through marriage
- Disconnect between London and workers.
- Workers relaxed rules.

146
Q

Brits in Hudson Bay
- Factories

A
  • Supposed to serve as village mall
  • centralized trading posts
  • Indians to bring furs there. Initially did not work

Need for overwintering because:
- winter beaver furs better
- maintain relations with Cree to keep them from allying with French

147
Q

Initial French Advantages
and Winners

A
  • Long standing relationship with Indians
  • Many intermarriages
  • Better exploitation of territory
  • ready access to birch trees
  • Colony business limited trade

Winners
- Indigenous
- Played both groups
- Gave better furs to French over HBC
- HBC laxed rules
- 1713 Treaty of Utrecht
- France recognized English rights to Ruperts Land
- Less raids

148
Q

1713 Treaty of Utrecht

A

Ended war of Spanish Succession
French restored drainage system to HB area
- French compensated HBC for losses during war.
- French ceded claims to NFL.

149
Q

The Northwest Company

A

HBC got competitive so French traders band together
- Created company in 1779
- only lower level traders are French
- Managements by Scots who went to Montreal during American revolution 1765-83
- Company absorbs smaller French trading companies
- Competition makes HBC move into fur trade aggressively

150
Q

Made Beaver Currency

A

HBC and NWC make made beaver currency.
- Cash in low supply in New World
- Made beaver was a prime beaver skin that was worn for one year to rub off barbs
- Regular beaver had not been worn down yet.
- Currency made it easier for book keeping and for forts not to be played against each other.

151
Q

HBC VS. NWC

A
  • Ongoing competition
  • Push each other to expand.
  • NWC better at expanding west. Better connections with Indians.
  • Eventually clash into each others territory
  • HBC smaller, but more capital and connections to English Crown
  • Both try colonial hostile takeovers, but HBC wins
  • 1821 companies merge.
152
Q

Ideas

A
  • Write down dates of events
  • Why Englsih had more success over French
  • Cartier Vs. Champlain
153
Q

Conclusion

A

Fur trade drops due to silk taking over
-demand for beaver to keep market stable gone.
- Fur trade as backbone for Canada gone.

Europeans: Alrady got all benefits from fur trade
- mapped what Canada will be like

Indigenous Families
- euros could spread footprint
- More pressure on resources
- fur trade disrupts traditional way of living.

154
Q

Fur Trade Part 2

A

How lng term marriages were the backbone to how trade got going.
How alliances between indigenous women and the white men.

155
Q

Marriages

A

Before merger
- prime economic/social arrangements in euro and indig culures.
- alliances monogamous and sexual
- not official to european eyes
- easy divorce allowed
- marriages were contact zones - favoured indigenous ways of understanding of marriage and followed their customs
- became known as marriages in the custom of the country.

156
Q

Relations Betwwen Companies befor Merger.

A
  • Before NWC no records of french/Indig relations
  • Traders lived part time with indigenous family and bachelors in colony on off season
  • Mixed race families not allowed in NF.
  • HBC did not allow marriage alliances, but soon added marriage quartes for traders and a house for the Chief
  • As kids were produced amnd they rose in the ranks, HBC would become run by elite Metis oligarchy.
157
Q

What did men get out of Marriage?
- Indigenous Women
- Children

A

Often only a few sexual partners in NF, but.
- Indig women have sexual autonomy. Can have sex for pleasure in long or short term relationships.
- Children welcomed by indigenous family
- Euro sex traditions value virginity and chastity because children go to male kin. No DNA testing.

Some Indig women traded sex for material goods, but not seen as sex work in Euro sense.

158
Q

Men Cont.
What did they get?

A
  • Language and cultural interpreter
  • Goods for survival: snowshoes, canoes, pemmican.
  • If women got higher status then conduit to community furs.
  • Relationship could make or break trader career.
  • Learned languages for trade deals
  • Relationships saved men when accidently breaking rules.
159
Q

Whay did Indigenous Women get?

A
  • status/control of fur trade. Secure goods for family and tribe.
  • Euro tools that made chores easier - kettles. They made her wealthier as well.
  • Upward mobility - esp if familiy status lowered over time.
  • less labor due to different ideals of gendered labour. Euro men thought women should not have to do heavy work. Esp. of elite status.
160
Q

Downsides for Women

A
  • More children due to sedentary lifestyle
  • potential conflict with euro men over children. Euro have patriarch and Indig do not.
  • Cultural tensions. Indig would flatten kids heads. Elite kids were flat. Husbands viewed as barbaric.
  • Euros see wives as property , but if violent the wife could return to people.
  • Widespread sexual/regular violence.
161
Q

Ending Marriages - Retirement

A

What to do If man wanted to return to Europe. Esp. if wealthy now.
- Women not accepted there.
- 1811 - Red River settlement where mixed race could settle.
- Some took indigenous wives and faced racism, but lived rural lives.
- Sometimes kids would pass, but wives would not.

In many cases they would seperate and women and kids stay with tribe. Easy at first, but problematic later.

162
Q

Retirement Cont.
- Turning Off

A

Wives used to living at fort. Many lost family connections and traditional ways.
- Could not go back as they were not wanted now.

Turning off - husband findthem a new husband to care for wife and children.
- Precedents in both cultures for this.

Sometimes just abandonment.

163
Q

Cracks in Marriage System

A

1800s.
- Both companies start discouraging now.
- Caused company more many - paid married men more and had to build quarters.
- mank skills provided by indigenous women now passed on to men.
- Indig women had to compete for husbands with Metis women.

164
Q
A

Marriages originally followed Indig culutre, but overtime men start pushing their society on their daughters. Odd as they liked what Indig women offered, but not for daughters.

165
Q

Metis Women Become Desired

A
  • perfect combination of Euro and Indig worlds.
  • Kinship connections with Indig people and Euro people.
  • Most could make snowshoes
  • Whiter skin made them more beautiful
  • More literate
  • Baptised
  • Dress in Euro fashions
  • More chaste and modest - es. daughters.
166
Q

Metis Women Cont.

A
  • wanted marriage legal by clery.
  • English court system willing to view marriages legit if done in custom of country unitl church got involved.
  • Men tied to indigenous women forever if clergy approves.

Cermony becomes more european
- dowry
- service followed by a party

167
Q

Metis Women more Vulnerable

A

Metis culture becomes distinct with Indig and Euro roots.
- Different power structures.
- Women cannot return due to not being allowed to divorce.
- Cannot leave even if husband abuses them or leaves
- If they returned they could not survove due to lack of skills.
- Marriage became only way to participate in the economy.
- Red River gave…

168
Q

More Vulnerable Cont.

A

Insisting marriage legal rather than custom.
- fewer elite men willing to marry Metis because it is permanent.
- Marrying non-white meant shunned from society.
- …

169
Q

White Women Arrive in Numbers

A
  • 1800s whote women move into mixed blood communities like Red River.
  • Selkirk colonists arrive in 1812 with 18 women.
  • 1821 swiss settlers bring more
  • Officers and elites in fur trade take white wives after turning off indigenous wives.
  • Causes social status of Metis and Indig wives to go down in community.
170
Q

Scientific Ideals of Whiteness in Victorian Times

A

Victorian Era 1837-1901
- Not actual science, read from bible and social “truths”.
- Non-whote people closer to beasts and bestial natures.
- Non-white people supposed to be more suited to manual tasks.
- White women seen as naturally modest. They would blush if lying.
- White women had smaller genitalia which meant more modest.

So this is all how they categorize theior racism.

171
Q

Doubled Double Standards for Metis and Indig Women

A
  • Seen as lesser as more white women come in.
  • have to work twice as hard to be “ladies”
  • some men vary cruel to former wives/children.

George Simpson
- Brought new wife to colony without telling Metis wife or turning her off.
- Would not let white wife mix with non-white elites. Starting new class.
- Becomes precedent for other elite people.

172
Q

Clashes in Red River

A

Increased tension between women
- lower class owmen see themselves above elite non-white women.
- Mnay elite white wives could not take colony life and they leave back to England.
- Gives non-whotes breathing room, but elites still not marrying them.
- New focus on settling white families.

173
Q

Conclusions
Important for Exam

A
  • sucess of fur trade rested on long term, invisible, labour of indigenous and metis women and children.
  • interracial kin networks created through marriage in the custom of the country were the backbone of the fur trade.
  • But it is clear that….Read slide.

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