PR Sample Test Notes Flashcards
PSYCH: Primacy vs Recency Effect
Primacy Effect: being able to recall things earliest in the list
Recency Effect: Superior free recall performance for last few items on list
Define Proactive interference
Proactive interference: interference of information from long term memory with new information
Define Meritocracy
Meritocracy: refers to rewards given according to individual talent or effort
Define Social reproduction
Social reproduction: the perpetuation of inequalities through social institutions (reproducing social inequality throughout generations)
Define Intergenerational mobility
Intergenerational mobility- change in social status across generations
Internal vs external locus of control
internal locus of control: attributing an outcome to personal trait
External locus of control: attributing an outcome to external situational factors (like poor family)
What is institutional discrimination?
Institutional Discrimination: describes the different treatment of sociodemographic groups that is due to institutional policies.
what is social stratification?
Social stratification: the objective social hierarchy in society
Define Cultural Relativism
Cultural Relativism: evaluation of another culture, where that other culture’s standards (norms/values) and rather than own’s cultural standards
What is confirmation bias?
Confirmation Bias: the tendency to confirm existing beliefs both in search of evidence and interaction of evidence.
How does sociology define an organization? What is an example of organizational change?
Sociologists define the word organization as a relatively formal group with identifiable membership that engages in concreted action to achieve a common purpose
ex of organizational change would be development of pediatric subspecialty of child abuse pediatricians (describes org change )
Describe what occurs in the phenomenon called group polarization
group polarization: refers to phenomenon in which people who are in agreement to get together with each other to discuss an issue and their views get more extreme
Define the theory symbolic interactionism
Symbolic interactionism: a theory that examines the patterns and meanings of social interactions (ex: Norms and values)
Define conflict theory
Conflict theory: pays attention to differences across social groups in power and status. The theory focuses on structural differences among groups.
What is confirmation and assimilation?
Conformity- following the norms of the group
assimilation– adopting the norms of a new culture
What is group think?
Group think: Theory that promotes group cohesion and consensus (agreement) rather than dissent (having your own opinion)
What is anomie?
Anomie- refers to the lack of attachment to social norms, which can result in a breakdown in the connection between individuals and their community.
What is theory of Gardener’s eight intelligences?
Gardener’s eight intelligences: theory that says people don’t just have intellectual intelligence, but also different forms of intelligence (musical, linguistic, visuospatial, etc)
Differentiate between operant and classical conditioning
Operant conditioning - (B.F. Skinner) encouraging or discouraging a specific behavior using reinforcement (positive, negative reinforcement or punishment) Classical condition (pavlov)- associating previously neutral stimuli with unconditional stimuli to produce a new learned response (conditioned response)
What is latent learning?
Latent learning- refers to acquiring a behavioral response in absence of reinforcement
what are extrinsic motivators?
Extrinsic motivators: describes behavior that is driven due to external rewards
What is Kohlberg’s stages of moral development?
Preconventional morality- right and wrong determined by reward and punishment; step 1 Punishment(whatever leads to punishment is wrong ) and step 2: Reward: the right way to behave is rewarded
Conventional morality; views of others matter; avoidance of blame: seeking other’s approval
-Step 3: good intentions ;behaving in ways that conform to good behavior
step 4 obedience to authority: importance of doing one’s duty
post-conventional morality ;Abstract notions of justice; Rights of others can override obedience to laws/rules
step 5: Difference between moral and legal right. Recognition that rules should sometimes be broken
Stage 6: Individual principles of conscience. Takes account of likely views of everyone affected by moral decision
what is the James Lange theory of emotion?
James Lange theory- physiological arousal precedes the experiencing of emotions
What is the cannon-bard theory of emotion?
Cannon Bard theory- physiological arousal and emotions occur simultaneously
Schachter and Singer’s theory of emotion
Schachter and singer’s theory of emotion– - two factor theory that discusses how emotion is based on physical arousal and cognitive label
What is socialization?
Socialization- process by which individuals learn norms and values.
What is world system’s theory and compare and contrast core and peripheral nations.
The World’s Systems theory- characterizes global inequalities in terms of core nations (countries more economically developed with strong governments and institutions)
and Peripheral nations:(less economically developed with weak governments and institutions and are often dependent on core nations)
Differentiate between id and ego? which psychologist developed this theory?
Sigmund Freud developed theory of Id and ego
id- represents unconscious instincts and innate aspects of our personality
ego- represents conscious aspects of personality
What is Mead’s I and me.
Mead’s
I- spontaneous and autonomous part of self
me-part of self that is formed with interaction with others part of general government.
What is stimulus generalization?
Stimuli generalization- The extent of conditioned response to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus
What is extinction?
Extinction refers to the eventual disappearance of an acquired response following a series of trials in which a conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus or an operant response is no longer followed by reward.
What is spontaneous recovery?
Spontaneous recovery- which is the return of an extinguished conditioned response (CR) after a rest period
What is working memory?
Working memory-cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily (part of phonologically loop of memorizing things for short term)
Compare and contrast the differences in visual stimuli and how they are perceived.
Wavelength differences between visual stimuli are perceived as differences in HUE (color shade)
Differences in Amplitude between visual stimuli are perceived as differences in BRIGHTNESS not in hue.
Differences between visual stimuli in PURITY are perceived as differences in how “pure,” or monochromatic, a color is at a given lightness. Purity is unrelated to hue.
What does it mean to “control for for characteristics in a study”
Control for characteristics: Controlling for characteristics means that the researchers accounted for various factors that could be confounds for the assessing the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
What is ethnocentrisim?
Ethnocentrism-endency to look at other cultures through the lens of one’s own culture. Bias and prejudice can be related to ethnocentrism,
What is social constructionism?
Social constructionism-theory of knowledge in sociology that examines how individuals develop their knowledge and understanding of the world (they have social values built into them)
What is sub-replacement fertility vs general fertility rate?
Sub-replacement fertility- occurs when death rates EXCEED birth rates and leads to new generation being less populous than previous one
General fertility rate- the annual number of births per 1000 women in a population
What is Sexism?
Sexism- describes any prejudice or discrimination against a person based on gender or sex
What is population lag effect?
Population Lag effect: he fact that changes in total fertility rates are often not reflected in the birth rate for several generations until those female babies come of age to reproduce
Define what fecundity is
Fecundity- describes the potential reproductive capacity of a single woman
What are the recognized functions of family?
Recognized functions of family:
- Socialization (passing down societal norms and values
- Affection and companionship
- protection
- social status
- reproduction/monitoring of sexual behavior
Compare and contrast absolute vs relative poverty
Absolute poverty-minimum amount of money needed to secure basic life necessities (bare minimum amount).
Relative poverty - a measure of poverty where family income is compared to the incomes of other families in the surrounding area
Describe what occurs during scapegoating
Scapegoating- rocess of displacing aggression onto an undeserving group of people
Compare and contrast optimism Bias and confirmation bias
optimism bias- occurs when one believes that bad things only happen to others, not to themselves;
confirmation bias- tendency to only search for information that confirms a previously held belief
What is Belief bias?
Belief bias-ype of bias that interferes with logical argumentation. When one holds a belief bias, one will judge an argument based on whether the conclusions are agreeable, rather than whether the argument itself is logical
Describe False consensus
False consensus- e tendency to see our own attitudes, beliefs and behavior as being typical
ex: believing that everyone thinks saving money is important, simply because you think so (and think everyone will agree)
What is colonization?
Colonization: form of immigration where a group of people arrives in an already settled land and proceeds to dominate and exploit the indigenous peoples
What is emigration
Emigration- leaving an old area to go to a new area;
Define external migration
External migration- migration across state or national borders, often with political cause
Compare and contrast Medical model of disease vs social model of disease
Medical model of disease- focus on ultimate cause of disease (like infection seen In lungs)
Social model of disease- focuses on how external social factors cause disease (such as living conditions
What is medicalization?
medicalization -process of adopting formerly non-medical problems into the jurisdiction of the medical community by giving them medical etiologies, diagnoses and explanations
What is illness experience?
Illness experience-ubjective feeling of being ill and the ways it interferes with a person’s everyday life
